Kangkung: water spinach farming

Kangkung or water spinach is asian vegetable which has so many benefits. more over, it is very easy to cultivate water spinach. you just need to put a part of the plant to soil. the soil must be kept watered every day and the plant will grow fast. the branch will grow as soon as the root grows, the plant will grow branch a lot. the most important condition is to keep the moisture of soil. you can harvest the water spinach in a month.

Kangkung or water spinach

harvesting time

another part of kangkung lifecycle is flowering season. when the water spinach got nutrition enough the plant will grow flower. the flower is Saxophone-like shaped. the flower blossom means the kangkung is ready to be harvested.

Analysis of genes for stigma coloration in rice

The anthocyanic pigmentation of the rice apiculus is controlled by three complementary
genes— C, A, and P —which serve as the basic coloration genes. The
genetic control of stigma color is more complex. To shed more light on genes for
stigma coloration, F 1 and F 2 data for 196 varietal crosses were investigated to
explain the whole pattern of segregation by assuming certain Mendelian genes. In
ordinary cases, the stigma is colored only in plants having C, A, and P. Two
independent genes, Ps-2 and Ps-3, take part in stigma coloration, Ps-2 being
relatively frequent in indicas and Ps-3 in japonicas. For Ps-3, an inhibitor, I-Ps-3,
was found, which seems to have two loci according to variety. In addition, two
complementary inhibitors are assumed to be present in some of the varieties. A
Japanese upland variety, Gaisen-mochi, having a colorless apiculus and colored
stigma, has Ps-1, which expresses stigma color even when P is absent (recessive).
An inhibitor for this gene, I-Ps-1, needs P to function. Four genes— P, Ps-3,
Ph, and Ps-1 —are located in linkage group II in that order. Their recombination
values were estimated.

Meat Products

8.1 Introduction
Meat is an important international commodity, consisting of fresh (chilled and frozen) meats and a
wide variety of fermented, dry-cured and smoked, as well as cooked products. Shipping whole lamb
carcasses and parts occurs. Beef and pork may also be shipped as half-carcasses or converted into
primal cuts, retail cuts, boneless meat and trimmings. Raw meat is an important source of human
enteric diseases caused by salmonellae, thermophilic Campylobacter spp., toxigenic E. coli O157:H7
and other enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) strains and Yersinia enterocolitica. In general, foodborne
disease from these pathogens is due to under cooking or under processing (e.g., improperly
fermented meats). The pathogens also may be transferred from the raw meat to ready-to-eat foods.
Outgrowth of surviving spores of Clostridium perfringens during slow chilling or improper holding
of cooked meats is also a problem in foodservice and home settings.
Fresh chilled meat is highly perishable and will spoil under the best of conditions unless frozen.
Meat is preserved by adding salt and other ingredients and processing (e.g., fermenting, drying, cooking,

Prospective use of Oryza longistaminata for rice breeding

Morphological types, fertility, and outcrossing rates were studied in a population
of 10 interspecific backcross progenies ( O. longistaminata/ O. sativa// O. sativa)
left under open pollination conditions. By segregation analysis at eight electrophoretic
loci, single-locus and multilocus estimates of the outcrossing rates were
calculated. In the first generation, 75% of the seeds came from outcrossing; this
rate decreased to 35% in the second generation, following pollen fertility restoration.
Outcrossing rates appeared primarily related to plant sterility and secondarily
to stigma length and exsertion. At the morphological level, an important diversity
of plant types was observed in the first generation, but plants were characterized
by various wild traits. The second generation spontaneously evolved toward a
more cultivated type, and transgressive segregants were observed for different
morphological traits. Allelic segregations at the F 1 level were normal, but the
second generation exhibited highly significant distortions. A loss of alleles coming
from the wild species was observed for 5 of the 8 loci and for all 10 families.
Oryza longistaminata is a wild species of rice that grows widely throughout intertropical
Africa. It covers a large range of ecological sites, from flooded plains to temporary
ponds, and propagates itself by developing vigorous rhizomes (Ghesquiere 1985). This
species is allogamous, with a self-incompatibility system, and shows the extreme
maximum values of stigma and anther length and number of pollen grains within the
Sativa species group (Oka and Morishima 1967).
This species shows significant diversity at the isozyme level (Ghesquiere 1988) and
appears to be among the most distant species from O. sativa within the Sativa group
(Second 1985). O. longistaminata has not intervened during the domestication of O.
sativa, nor in the latter’s diversification on the African continent since its introduction
there, because of the strong reproductive barrier that isolates the former from all other
species. This barrier is due to the action of two complementary lethal genes that cause
abortion of the embryo (Chu and Oka 1970a, Ghesquiere 1988). In spite of this barrier,
hybrid plants may be obtained, either by artificial crossing or, rarely, in seed sets
collected from wild plants along the borders of ricefields.

Traditional highland rices originating from intersubspecific recombination in Madagascar

 Genetic divergence among traditional rices from Madagascar was investigated on
the basis of 39 morphophysiological traits and 19 isozyme genes. Comparison
with Asian and African rices revealed the existence of new varietal types that do
not fit the existing classification schemes. These types are mainly lowland
cultivars grown in the high plateau region at altitudes ranging from 1,000 to
1,500 m. Based on morphophysiology, they are intermediate between indica and
tropical japonica types for most traits, although they are the tallest. Isozyme data
show a limited global gene diversity and a marked bipolar structure similar to the
classical indica-japonica structure with, however, a peculiar predominance of
allele 2 at locus Amp-1, forming multilocus types that are rare or absent in Asia.
Classical associations between some isozymes and some morphological traits
are almost nonexistent. The introduction of rices from Asia to Madagascar was
thus probably accompanied by a strong founder effect and was followed by
intensive intersubspecific recombination. Adaptation to new ecological niches
took place without pronounced disruption of subspecific complexes of coadapted
genes.

Sandy land

The indica-japonica differentiation is the main feature of varietal diversity in Asian
cultivated rice (see Oka 1988 for a review). Such a pattern most probably arose from
multiple domestications and the associated founder effects. Post-domestication varietal
migrations were extensive, and the two types are now distributed over most Asian
regions. There remains evidence of ecological specialization, leading indica varieties
to be grown mainly under tropical lowland conditions, and japonica varieties mainly
under temperate conditions and tropical upland conditions. In some environments,
such as tropical highlands, both types are sympatric and are thus exposed to intersubspecific
introgressions. An isozymic survey of Asian traditional varieties (Glaszmann
1987, 1988) suggested that few indica-japonica intermediates exist, and that most
intermediate-like varieties are more probably consequent to the contribution of local
wild rices rather than to intervarietal recombination.

Applications and Use of Criteria and Other Tests

2011
7.1 Introduction
As discussed in Chap. 1, it is widely recognized that application of prerequisite programs at
preharvest,
harvest and postharvest level (e.g., Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), Good Farming
Practices (GFP), Good Veterinary Practices (GVP), Good Hygiene Practices (GHP), Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMP), etc.) and Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) program
is the most effective food safety management strategy. Effective control of undesirable microorganisms

Genetic diversity and intervarietal relationships in rice ( Oryza sativa L.) in Africa

Twelve African cultivars of Oryza sativa were sampled to examine the biological
significance of varietal classification based on isozyme studies. Analyses of F 1
hybrid sterility and of F 2 segregations showed good correspondence between
biochemical markers and observed reproductive barriers. Genetic markers for
some vegetative and reproductive traits were identified. Such linkages could be
involved in the relationships between classifications based on various criteria.
The variability in Africa of the Asian cultivated rice species Oryza sativa has been
described and analyzed with regard to isozymic polymorphism (Ghesquière and
Second 1983; de Kochko 1987, 1988) as well as agromorphological traits (Jacquot and
Arnaud 1979, Miezan and Ghesquière 1986). These studies have shown that the genetic
diversity of O. sativa in Africa is similar to that in Asia and that it is organized in two
main groups corresponding to the indica and japonica subspecies.
The indica-japonica distinction is partly based on the existence of reproductive
barriers among Asian cultivars of O. sativa (Oka 1988). It is thus important to know
if the indica-japonica distinction, maintained in Africa by enzymatic diversity, also
reflects differences in the genetic pool, as in Asia.
Materials and methods

Microbiological Testing in Customer–Supplier Relations

6.1 Introduction
The complete food chain from farm to fork is characterized by a sequence of supplier–customer
interfaces. These interfaces imply the establishment of contracts defining the requirements of the
customers with respect to their suppliers. These contracts also reflect the commitment of the supplier
to guarantee the delivery of goods in compliance with the agreed-upon requirements.
This sequence of interfaces plays an important role in fulfilling a Food Safety Objective (FSO) at
the level of the final consumer as defined by public health authorities. As shown in Fig. 6.1, individual

How was rice differentiated into indica and japonica?

The evolutionary dynamics of the indica-japonica differentiation was studied from
the viewpoint of population genetics. Indica and japonica are distinguished by
genes and characters associated with each other nonrandomly. In indica/japonica
hybrid progenies, the same direction of gene and character association found
among the cultivars was generally observed. This means a trend toward the
restriction of recombination among several independent loci. Accordingly, intermediate
types between indica and japonica are relatively infrequent, even if natural
hybridization occurs frequently between them. lndicas and japonicas are isolated
by the restriction of recombination in the hybrids.

Corrective Actions to Reestablish Control

5.1 Introduction
The primary goal of a food safety system is to prevent, eliminate or reduce hazards to the extent
feasible by existing technology. Food safety systems are based on knowledge of the potential hazards
that can occur in food operations, through the process of hazard analysis. Control measures are then
selected and applied to ensure the food will comply with requirements established by the manufacturer,
customers and control authorities. It is in the interest of manufacturers to produce foods that
consumers can rely upon as being safe.
Many countries require food safety systems that incorporate the principles of Good Hygiene
Practices (GHP) and Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) programs (Codex Alimentarius

Screening and analysis of wide compatibility loci in wide crosses of rice

With indica and japonica testers to screen out wide compatibility types, a number
of varieties seemed to be indicas but differed from them by showing semisterility
in crosses with Ketan Nangka, a donor of the wide compatibility allele (neutral
allele). Another varietal group showed good fertility with indica and japonica
testers, but revealed sterility in crosses with Ketan Nangka. Thus, Ketan Nangka
is suggested as a standard variety, along with the aus varieties, which show semisterility
in crosses with indica and japonica testers but normal fertility with most
aus varieties. A set of four varieties—Achar Bhog, Ketan Nangka, IR36, and a
japonica type—is proposed as standard testers for hybrid sterility. F 1 hybrid
sterility in rice is understood with allelic interactions at the S-5 locus. With the
identification system for S-5, a large number of crosses were made to test the
extent to which the neutral allele at the S-5 locus is effective. Hybrid sterility in
Penuh Baru II and aus varieties, which is not explained by the testers for S-5, was
found to be due to an additional locus rather than to a new allele. The neutral
allele at the S-5 locus can now be effectively used, but a new neutral allele
indicated by Dular would also be important in rice breeding.

Verification of Environmental Control

 4.1 Introduction
The microbiological safety of industrially manufactured foods is based on the effective design and
implementation of Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
(HACCP).
Published case studies demonstrate the impact of postprocess contamination (ICMSF 2002). Even
when strict control at all CCPs ensures destruction or reduction of pathogens to acceptable levels
during processing, foods may become contaminated during subsequent processing and handling. Such