Meat Products

8.1 Introduction
Meat is an important international commodity, consisting of fresh (chilled and frozen) meats and a
wide variety of fermented, dry-cured and smoked, as well as cooked products. Shipping whole lamb
carcasses and parts occurs. Beef and pork may also be shipped as half-carcasses or converted into
primal cuts, retail cuts, boneless meat and trimmings. Raw meat is an important source of human
enteric diseases caused by salmonellae, thermophilic Campylobacter spp., toxigenic E. coli O157:H7
and other enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) strains and Yersinia enterocolitica. In general, foodborne
disease from these pathogens is due to under cooking or under processing (e.g., improperly
fermented meats). The pathogens also may be transferred from the raw meat to ready-to-eat foods.
Outgrowth of surviving spores of Clostridium perfringens during slow chilling or improper holding
of cooked meats is also a problem in foodservice and home settings.
Fresh chilled meat is highly perishable and will spoil under the best of conditions unless frozen.
Meat is preserved by adding salt and other ingredients and processing (e.g., fermenting, drying, cooking,

canning) in many regions of the world. The conditions of processing and holding can lead to
other risks of foodborne illness that are discussed under each product category.
Raw meat is often purchased as an ingredient in chilled or frozen form. While microbiological
testing can be performed on the meat, this is an ineffective approach to controlling quality. A preferred
approach is for the buyer and supplier to agree on a purchase specification that includes the
maximum number of days from slaughter (e.g., 3–10 days), microbial data on process hygiene, and
the conditions of chilling, storage and distribution (e.g., £5°C). By controlling time and temperature,
microbial safety and quality may be better assured for the intended purpose. While there are no standardized
procedures for establishing such specifications, they must take into account practical considerations
such as the time required to convert carcasses into the desired cuts of chilled meat and
shipping, including allowance for nonworking days (e.g., weekends and holidays). The temperature
of the meat may vary with the method of chilling (e.g., air chill, CO2 snow) and the size of the portions
of meat but, typically internal temperatures of £5°C are common when received by customers.
An exception may be large beef rounds that are chilled for £24 h (at minimum £7°C) before
shipping.
Another alternative is to purchase frozen raw meat from suppliers that have procedures that control
the freezing rate. The method of packing, palletizing and freezing can influence whether microbial
growth and spoilage occurs before the meat is frozen in the center of the pack. Manufacturers of
certain cooked products prefer mixing chilled and frozen meat to achieve desired temperatures and
conditions during processing. Chilled and frozen products may also be mixed during production of
products such as salami to keep the fat cold and thus prevent smear when filled into the casing.
Chapter 8
Meat Products
76 8 Meat Products
Additional information on the microbiology of meat products is available (ICMSF 2005).
The Codex Alimentarius Commission’s Code of Hygienic Practice for Meat (Codex Alimentarius
2005) provides guidance for managing microbiological risks associated with meat products.
8.2 Primary Production
Conditions for raising livestock differ significantly throughout the world and range from small familyowned
farms having one or more animals to large specialized livestock operations. As farm sizes
increase and become more specialized, financial investment and concern for animal disease increases.
Larger farms must implement more stringent controls to achieve faster growth rates at lower cost with
greater yields of higher quality meat and other products. With fewer but larger farms, there is an
opportunity to establish national on-farm control programs to improve the conditions necessary to
reduce pathogens of concern to human health as well as livestock. For example, regulations that
prevent feeding raw, uncooked garbage to pigs successfully reduced the prevalence of Trichinella
spiralis in pigs and, thereby, reduced the risk of trichinosis among humans in the USA. Likewise,
programs adopted in certain countries to improve control of Salmonella in livestock at the farm level,
for example EU Regulation 2160/2003/EC on control of Salmonella or other specified foodborne
zoonotic agents.
8.3 Raw Meat Products, Excluding Comminuted Meats
This section covers fresh chilled or frozen meat product other than comminuted meats that are typically
intended to be cooked.
8.3.1 Significant Organisms
8.3.1.1 Hazards and Controls
Significant hazards for fresh meat are salmonellae and campylobacters. In beef, E. coli O157:H7 and
other EHEC strains are also a concern, especially in products that may not receive sufficient heat
to render the product safe. Fresh pork is a primary source for T. spiralis and pathogenic strains of
Y. enterocolitica. The microbiological content of packaged fresh meat reflects the conditions of the
incoming livestock, slaughtering, chilling, cutting, deboning, etc. Control consists of on-farm good
animal husbandry practices, contamination prevention during slaughter and microbial contamination
reduction by surface treatment of carcasses before chilling. Some surface treatments (e.g., steam, hot
water, acid sprays and dips) are not permitted in certain countries.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission’s Code of Hygienic Practice for Meat (Codex Alimentarius
2005) provides guidance for managing microbiological risks associated with raw meat.
8.3.1.2 Spoilage and Controls
Four factors influence the microbial spoilage of raw meat at refrigeration temperatures, (1) the numbers
and types of psychrotrophic bacteria, (2) the inherent pH of the meat, (3) the storage temperature
and (4) the type of packaging, including modified atmosphere or vacuum packaging. These factors
should be controlled. Effective implementation of GHP is the primary factor affecting the number and
type of psychrotrophic bacteria on raw meat. Equipment should be designed for ease of maintenance
and cleanability, and the equipment and processing environment must be cleaned and disinfected at
8.3 Raw Meat Products, Excluding Comminuted Meats 77
intervals that can maintain low levels of the psychrotrophic spoilage bacteria. Rooms used for cutting,
trimming or deboning chilled carcasses should be maintained at chill temperatures.
The inherent pH of muscle tissue (e.g., pH 5.4–6.5) cannot be altered but should be understood since
it is an important factor influencing shelf life of raw, refrigerated meats. Storage temperature, however,
can be controlled and storage below 4°C can have a profound beneficial impact on keeping quality. Shelf
life is maximized at temperatures approaching the freezing point of meat (about −1.5°C).
The type of packaging can influence the rate of growth and the microorganisms that ultimately
cause spoilage. For example, raw meat has a longer shelf life when vacuum packaged or packaged
with a gas atmosphere containing carbon dioxide compared with packaging in an oxygen permeable
film. Trace amounts of oxygen can influence the rate of spoilage in vacuum packaged meats. Frozen
meat typically does not undergo microbial spoilage.
The above information also applies to offal and other by-products (livers, hearts, kidneys, head
meat, etc.). Slaughtering operations must provide removal and chilling of these internal organs and
meats in a timely manner to prevent incipient spoilage.
8.3.2 Microbial Data
Table 8.1 summarizes useful testing for fresh chilled and frozen meat products, excluding comminuted
meats, for microbiological safety and quality.
8.3.2.1 Critical Ingredients
Fresh meats available in international commerce, by definition, should not contain added ingredients.
Some retail products include added spices or flavorings to marinate the product during refrigerated
distribution, storage and display. These ingredients are not likely to influence shelf life unless they
introduce psychrotrophic bacteria capable of growing on the product under the conditions of packaging.
Certain ingredients, such as vinegar and salt, could reduce the spoilage rate, if present in sufficiently
high concentration.
8.3.2.2 In-Process
The most common sampling times for control of slaughter process hygiene are before or after the
carcasses are chilled. Prechill samples can reflect the level of slaughter process hygiene related to
meat safety (e.g., the numbers of E. coli or Enterobacteriaceae which indicate fecal contamination).
Postchill samples reflect all the previous effort to minimize contamination during the slaughtering
and chilling. Samples typically consist of swabs, sponges or tissue samples from specified locations
on the carcass. Subsequent tissue samples can be collected after the carcasses are cut into portions
for further processing or retail packages. Typical levels encountered in operations that apply multiple
hurdles during slaughter are an aerobic colony count of <103 CFU/cm2 carcass surface or <104 CFU/g
of tissue from cut meat when plates are incubated at 35°C. These counts can vary considerably
depending on the temperature of incubation and the processing methods used in the region. Because
of this, regional or internal company standards will vary and specific recommendations are not possible
for this category of products.
8.3.2.3 Processing Environment
Swab or sponge samples should be collected before the start of operation to verify the effectiveness of
cleaning and disinfecting the meat-contact surfaces and equipment used for cutting, trimming, deboning
and other steps in converting carcasses to packaged fresh meat. Analysis for aerobic colony counts is
78 8 Meat Products
Table 8.1 Testing of fresh chilled and frozen meat products, excluding comminuted meats, for microbiological safety
and quality
Relative importance Useful testing
Critical
ingredients
Low Fresh meats generally do not contain added ingredients
In-process Medium Swab, sponge or tissue samples from carcasses before or after entering the chiller,
or tissue samples from cut portions can be useful to assess hygiene process control
and conditions that affect microbial levels of subsequent product (ISO 17604).
See text for typical levels encountered
Processing
environment
Medium Sample equipment surfaces before start-up to verify efficacy of cleaning and
disinfecting. See text for typical levels encountered
Shelf life Low Routine shelf life testing of refrigerated raw meat is not recommended. Shelf life testing
may be useful to validate code dates of new retail products or when new packaging
systems are implemented
End product Medium Test for indicators or utility organisms for on-going process control and trend analysis
of freshly packaged product using internally developed guidelines (see text). Levels
developed for processing do not apply during distribution or at retail (see text)
Product Microorganism
Analytical
methoda Case
Sampling plan &
limits/gb,c
n c m M
Raw, noncomminuted
meat
E. coli ISO 16649-2 4 5 3 10 102
Medium Routine lot acceptance sampling is not recommended for salmonellae on raw meat
products. In countries or regions that have established performance criteria for
salmonellae, use the required sampling plan and tests. Test in regions where ground
beef is a continuing source of E. coli O157:H7 illness
Product Microorganism
Analytical
methoda Case
Sampling plan &
limits/25gb,c
n c m M
Beef trimmings used
in ground beef
E. coli O157:H7 ISO 16654 14 30d 0 0 –
a Alternative methods may be used when validated against ISO methods
b Refer to Appendix A for performance of these sampling plans
c Swab or sponge samples could also be considered
d Individual 25 g analytical units (see Sect. 7.5.2 for compositing)
commonly used, but other tests (e.g., ATP-bioluminescence), coliforms, Enterobacteriaceae, occasionally
staphylococci may provide useful information. A typical level encountered on thoroughly cleaned,
disinfected stainless steel is an aerobic colony count of <500 CFU/cm2. Higher numbers may be
encountered on other surfaces (e.g., nonmetal conveyor belts). Regulatory standards may be established
in some regions.
8.3.2.4 Shelf Life
Shelf life testing may be performed on refrigerated meats, should the company deem this useful, but
testing frozen raw meat is not necessary. Shelf life testing may be useful to validate code dates of new
retail products or when new packaging systems are installed. The term “code date” may include “use
by,” “sell by” and “best-before” dates, depending on the region. Verification of the code date can be
based simply on sensory evaluation. Microbiological analysis for specific spoilage microorganisms
8.3 Raw Meat Products, Excluding Comminuted Meats 79
may be helpful for certain products. Another method is to conduct in-store surveys to verify sensory
acceptability relative to the code dates.
8.3.2.5 End Product
Many companies and governments have established criteria for indicators of quality or process
hygiene (e.g., aerobic colony count, Enterobacteriaceae, generic E. coli). The criteria may be
intended for one or more steps in the food chain from slaughter through retail display. Such tests
reflect the conditions of slaughter, chilling, and the time and temperature of storage. These values
are poor indicators of the prevalence or concentration of enteric pathogens in fresh meats. Also, since
psychrotrophic microorganisms increase during storage, distribution and retail display, samples collected
at these stages cannot be used to estimate the hygienic conditions during processing and
packaging. Samples yielding unacceptable results in distribution and retail display should lead to
investigative sampling to determine why they occurred, so that appropriate corrective actions can be
implemented. For example, if high levels of E. coli are encountered at retail, this may be caused by
poor hygienic conditions during manufacture or storage at elevated temperatures (e.g., >7–8°C) that
permit growth. Typical levels encountered in operations that apply multiple hurdles during slaughter
are an aerobic colony count (incubated at 35°C) of <104 CFU/g and generic E. coli of <10 CFU/g.
These counts can vary considerably depending on the temperature of incubation and the processing
methods used or allowed in the region. Because of this, regional or internal company standards will
vary and specific recommendations are not possible for this category of products.
Indicator tests of frozen products reflect the microbial population at time of freezing and any
decrease that may have occurred during distribution and retail display.
There are considerable differences in prevalence rates for salmonellae on fresh meat in different
regions and countries. While routine lot acceptance sampling is not recommended for salmonellae on
fresh meat products, unique situations can occur where information on the presence/prevalence of
salmonellae can provide useful information, such as for outbreak investigations and new supplier
qualification.
Of increasing interest is the effort to improve food safety through the application of criteria
(e.g., performance objectives) for foodborne pathogens (e.g., salmonellae) at specific steps in the food
chain. The growing support for this approach led the Codex Alimentarius Commission to provide
guidance to governments for verification of process control of meat hygiene by microbiological testing
(Codex Alimentarius 2005). While specific microbiological criteria are not provided, the guidance
states that “Establishment of microbiological testing requirements, including performance
objectives
or performance criteria should be the responsibility of competent authorities, in consultationwith
relevant interested parties, and may consist of guidelines or regulatory standards.” Furthermore,
“The competent authority should verify compliance with microbiological testing requirements where
they are specified in regulation e.g., microbiological statistical process control requirements, standards
for Salmonella spp.”
Trend analysis is an important component, because the data can be used to measure changes in
prevalence rates as industry implements procedures to meet the established requirements. Some
countries or regions (e.g., USA, EU) have initiated long-term continuous improvement programs to
reduce the prevalence of salmonellae on raw beef and pork products (USDA 1996, 2008; EU 2003,
2005). Ideally, such programs are coupled with guidance that provides science-based, best practices
from farm through slaughter and chilling, and relate to a public health goal. It is uncertain whether
the approaches (control at the farm, control at the slaughtering plant or a combination of the two)
applied by different countries will lead to different degrees of pathogen control and consumer protection.
For example, adoption of performance objectives at the plant level for raw meat and poultry has
yet to result in reduction of human salmonellosis in the USA that was expected when the pathogen
reduction regulation (USDA 1996) was finalized (Cole and Tompkin 2005, CDC 2009).
80 8 Meat Products
Lot acceptance sampling of beef trimmings is being used by industry in the USA as a control
measure in a comprehensive management system to reduce the risk of E. coli O157:H7 in ground
beef. For countries or regions where E. coli O157:H7 or other EHEC are a pathogen of concern in
ground beef, guidance is available for establishing an appropriate sampling plan (ICMSF 2002, Cole
and Tompkin 2005, Butler et al. 2006). Epidemiologic data in the USA suggests this practice has
contributed to the reduction in disease from E. coli O157:H7 in the USA (Cole and Tompkin 2005).
8.4 Raw Comminuted Meats
8.4.1 Significant Organisms
8.4.1.1 Hazards and Controls
A wide variety of raw comminuted meat products are produced containing beef, pork, lamb, veal and
other meats. The products may contain extenders (e.g., rice, wheat flour, soy protein), spices, herbs
and flavoring agents, and are available in many different shapes, sizes and packaging. The hazards of
significance in raw comminuted meat products are salmonellae, campylobacters, and when beef and
other ruminant species are added, E. coli O157:H7 and other EHEC strains. In certain regions, pork
products may contain pathogenic strains of Y. enterocolitica or T. spiralis. Both pathogens can be
inactivated by cooking.
8.4.1.2 Spoilage and Controls
See Sect. 8.3.1.2.
8.4.2 Microbial Data
Table 8.2 summarizes useful testing for raw comminuted meats. Refer to the text for important details
related to specific recommendations.
8.4.2.1 Critical Ingredients
There are no critical nonmeat ingredients. The primary source of microbial hazards is the raw meat.
Since beef trimmings are the primary source of E. coli O157:H7, the sampling plan in Table 8.1 is
recommended for trimmings to be used for manufacturing ground beef in regions where illness is a
concern. Other sampling plans may be proposed. For example, the USDA-FSIS (USDA 2010) refers
to “robust” sampling using n = 60, where each sample is a 1 × 3 × 0.125 in. (2.5 × 7.6 × 0.32 cm) surface
sample (approximately 340 g). Analysis of trimmings can be used to select suppliers. Working with
approved suppliers can lead to improved microbial control of the end products.
8.4.2.2 In-Process
Routine in-process samples are not normally collected. Samples of meat at various stages of processing
can be used to establish a baseline and understand changes in the microbial population during
processing.
8.4 Raw Comminuted Meats 81
8.4.2.3 Processing Environment
Samples from equipment surfaces before start-up should be used to verify the efficacy of cleaning
and disinfecting procedures. Typical aerobic colony counts on thoroughly cleaned, disinfected stainless
steel are <500 CFU/cm2. Higher numbers may be encountered on other surfaces (e.g., nonmetal
conveyor belts).
8.4.2.4 Shelf Life
Shelf life testing of refrigerated raw comminuted meat may be performed if the company finds this
useful, but testing of frozen products is not recommended. Shelf life testing may be useful to validate
code dates of new retail products or when new packaging systems are installed. Shelf life tests can
be performed to periodically verify the code dates applied to retail products.
8.4.2.5 End Product
Testing for indicators can be useful for on-going process control and trend analysis of freshly packaged
product. Typical levels encountered in operations that apply multiple hurdles during slaughter
are an aerobic colony count (incubated at 35°C) of <105 CFU/g and generic E. coli of <102 CFU/g.
Table 8.2 Testing of raw comminuted meats for microbiological safety and quality
Relative importance Useful testing
Critical
ingredients
Low to
high
Pretesting beef trimmings for E. coli O157:H7 may be useful when confidence in
supplier control programs is low (see text)
In-process Low Routine in-process samples are not normally collected. Samples of meat at various
stages of processing can be used to establish a baseline and understand changes in
the microbial population during processing
Processing
environment
Low Sample equipment surfaces before start-up to verify efficacy of cleaning and
disinfecting (see text for typical levels encountered)
Shelf life Low Routine shelf life testing of refrigerated raw meat is not recommended. Shelf life
testing may be useful to validate code dates of new retail products or when new
packaging systems are installed
End product Medium Test for indicators or utility organisms for on-going process control and trend analysis
of freshly packaged product using internally developed guidelines (see text). Levels
developed for processing do not apply during distribution or at retail (see text)
Product Microorganism
Analytical
methoda Case
Sampling plan &
limits/gb
n c m M
Raw, noncomminuted meat E. coli ISO 16649-2 4 5 3 10 102
Medium Routine testing is not recommended for salmonellae on raw comminuted meat
products (see text). In regions where ground beef is a continuing source of E. coli
O157:H7 illness, the following criteria are recommended
Product Microorganism
Analytical
methoda Case
Sampling plan &
limits/25 gb
n c m M
Ground beef E. coli O157:H7 ISO 16654 14 30c 0 0 –
aAlternative methods may be used when validated against ISO methods
bRefer to Appendix A for performance of these sampling plans
cIndividual 25 g analytical units (see Sect. 7.5.2 for compositing)
82 8 Meat Products
These counts can vary considerably depending on the temperature of incubation and the processing
methods used or allowed in the region. Because of this, regional or internal company standards will
vary and specific recommendations are not possible for this category of products.
Indicator tests (e.g., aerobic colony count, E. coli) of comminuted meats during distribution and
retail display cannot be used to assess the hygienic conditions during time of manufacture. If high
levels of E. coli are encountered at retail, investigational samples are necessary to determine the
reason such as poor hygienic conditions during manufacture and/or storage at elevated temperatures
(e.g., >7–8°C) that permit growth. Indicator tests of frozen products reflect the microbial population
at the time of freezing and any decrease that may have occurred during distribution and retail
display.
There are considerable differences in prevalence rates for salmonellae in raw comminuted meats
in different regions and countries. A microbiological risk assessment has not been conducted to estimate
the risk of salmonellosis as different sampling plans are applied. While routine lot acceptance
sampling is not recommended for salmonellae on raw comminuted meats, unique situations (e.g.,
outbreak investigations, new supplier certification) can occur where data on the prevalence of salmonellae
can provide useful information.
The information in Sect. 8.3.2.5 is generally applicable to raw comminuted meats. Due to the public
health risk associated with E. coli O157:H7 in ground beef, sampling for this pathogen may be appropriate
in regions where epidemiological data indicate this can be beneficial. It is important to recognize that
the recommended sampling plan cannot ensure that E. coli O157:H7 will be absent from the entire lot,
particularly with the expected low prevalence. The purpose of the sampling plan is to detect and remove
lots of ground beef that have a higher than normal prevalence or concentration of E. coli O157:H7 and
that will more likely result in illness. Normally, case 13 would apply since ground beef is usually cooked
before eating; however, case 14 may be appropriate for regions where E. coli O157:H7 or other EHEC
are a recognized hazard and undercooking and/or cross-contamination to ready-to-eat foods is likely to
occur in homes and food service establishments (ICMSF 2002).
8.5 Raw Cured Shelf-Stable Meats
8.5.1 Significant Organisms
8.5.1.1 Hazards and Controls
Two groups of shelf-stable meat products are discussed in this section: (1) traditional raw dry cured
hams and (2) dry fermented sausages. The hazards to consider in raw cured shelf-stable meats are
salmonellae, EHEC, Y. enterocolitica, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum and T. spiralis.
The pathogens of concern depend upon the type of meat (e.g., beef, pork) and the method of manufacture
(e.g., dry curing, fermenting, mild heating). While L. monocytogenes has been detected in raw
cured hams and raw fermented sausages, the product characteristics (e.g., low aW) prevent multiplication.
A risk assessment and a risk categorization placed these products in the low category of risk as
sources of foodborne listeriosis (FDA-FSIS 2003, FAO/WHO 2004). For dry cured hams, the methods
of control are based on traditional practices that have evolved over hundreds of years. Initially, the
meat (e.g., pork) is externally coated with salt, which may contain nitrate, nitrite and spices, and held
at low temperatures for times sufficient to allow the salt to penetrate throughout the meat. Subsequent
drying and aging at higher temperatures for relatively long periods of time (e.g., months) allows additional
growth of microorganisms typical for the products (e.g., lactic acid-producing bacteria)
and
elimination of enteric pathogens.
For dry fermented sausages, use of a commercial starter culture or glucono-delta-lactone (GDL) and
processing conditions (e.g., amount of added salt, temperature of fermentation) that favor growth of the
8.5 Raw Cured Shelf-Stable Meats 83
culture, limits growth of S. aureus by acidulation process (e.g., pH £ 5.3) at a defined period of time and
temperature. Another somewhat less reliable method to control S. aureus is to hold the sausages at lower
temperatures until the moisture content is reduced and, more importantly, enable the indigenous lactic
population to multiply. This reduces the likelihood that S. aureus will multiply when the temperature is
subsequently increased for further processing. Other procedures can be applied.
Survival of Salmonella, E. coli O157:H7 and Y. enterocolitica in improperly manufactured
fermented
sausage has resulted in illness. These enteric pathogens can be controlled in fermented
sausages by applying processes that have been validated to kill the pathogen at levels expected in the
raw meat blends and then applying HACCP systems to verify that the required conditions of manufacture
are met. Some countries (e.g., Canada, USA) have requirements for validating control of
EHEC in fermented meats because the product has been implicated in EHEC infections. These processes
may include a mild heating step that may cause the product to lose the raw meat texture traditionally
associated with the product. In regions where T. spiralis occurs in raw pork, procedures can
be applied to inactivate the parasite. One option is to use pork that has been frozen and held for a
prescribed time. Another option is to apply processing conditions specified in guidelines or regulations
to inactivate the parasite.
8.5.1.2 Spoilage and Controls
By definition these products are shelf-stable and generally do not undergo microbial spoilage during
storage and distribution. The method of packaging may be a factor for certain products. Exposure to
high humidity can lead to mold spoilage.
8.5.2 Microbial Data
Table 8.3 summarizes useful testing for raw cured shelf-stable meats. Refer to the text for important
details related to specific recommendations.
8.5.2.1 Critical Ingredients
The manufacturing processes for meat used in raw, cured, shelf-stable meats should be validated for
control of pathogens that occur in the meat. The nonmeat ingredients added to these products are rarely
a source of significant pathogens or spoilage organisms. The quantity of some ingredients (e.g., salt,
Table 8.3 Testing of raw cured shelf-stable meats for microbiological safety and quality
Relative importance Useful testing
Critical ingredients Low These products do not contain nonmeat ingredients of significance for
microbiological safety or quality
In-process Low Routine sampling of intermediate products for microbiological testing is
not recommended. Critical factors such as time, temperature, rate of pH
decline, aW, addition of correct amount of salt and curing agent, must be
monitored for safety
Processing environment Low Routine sampling of equipment and the environment is not recommended
Shelf life Low These products are inherently shelf-stable
End product Low Routine sampling of the end products is not recommended
84 8 Meat Products
sodium nitrite) is, however, critical in certain products. Insufficient amounts of salt can lead to pathogen
survival and growth. An excessive amount of salt during formulation of sausages to be fermented can
slow or prevent the development of the lactic acid bacteria and favor the growth of S. aureus.
8.5.2.2 In-Process
For dry cured hams, routine microbial testing at various stages of processing is not performed. Such
samples, however, can be helpful in the event a problem occurs and microbiological data are needed.
For dry fermented meats, monitoring time, temperature and rate of acid production (decreasing pH)
is very important. Routine sampling for pathogens is not recommended since the risk associated with
these pathogens is controllable through GHP and the HACCP system. Validated processing conditions
should be used for pathogen control.
8.5.2.3 Processing Environment
Sampling the processing environment is generally not recommended for these traditional products.
Many of the facilities have a natural flora that has evolved over time and may be beneficial to the
process.
8.5.2.4 Shelf Life
These traditional products typically have extended code dates reflecting their stability at ambient
temperatures. Shelf life tests are not recommended.
8.5.2.5 End Product
Routine microbiological sampling of these products is not recommended for either safety or quality.
Emphasis should be placed on application of GHP, validated processes and monitoring CCPs within
the HACCP plan for control of microbiological safety and quality.
8.6 Dried Meat Products
8.6.1 Significant Organisms
8.6.1.1 Hazards and Controls
Three general groups of dried meats are produced. The first includes cooked dried meats that are used
as ingredients in dried soups and other foods. Cooking and preventing recontamination are important
control factors for this class of product.
The second group includes strips of meat or thin sausages that are cooked before drying. These
products are sold as snacks or basic ingredients in certain dishes. They may be produced in large
quantities in continuous systems or in smaller quantities in batch processing equipment. This product
is also produced throughout the world in very small operations, primarily for personal use or local
distribution, but this practice can involve fairly wide consumer exposure.
The third group includes a variety of traditional products that are unique to certain regions and
have not been cooked (e.g., biltong, charqui).
8.6 Dried Meat Products 85
The microbial hazards to consider in dried meat products are Salmonella, EHEC and S. aureus.
L. monocytogenes is not a hazard of concern because the low aw prevents its multiplication in these
products. A risk assessment and a risk categorization have placed these products in the low risk category
for foodborne listeriosis (FDA-FSIS 2003, FAO/WHO 2004). Cooking is a CCP for most of
these products. Uncontrolled salting and drying conditions can permit growth and enterotoxin production
by S. aureus. Additional control consists of applying GHP to prevent contamination with
enteric pathogens. Extended storage at ambient temperature with high salt (i.e., low aW) can reduce
enteric pathogen levels.
8.6.1.2 Spoilage and Controls
Dried meat products are microbiologically stable, although exposure to conditions of high humidity
can lead to spoilage by molds.
8.6.2 Microbial Data
Table 8.4 summarizes useful testing for dried meat products. Refer to the text for important details
related to specific recommendations.
8.6.2.1 Critical Ingredients
Manufacturing processes for dried meat products should be validated for control of pathogens that
occur in the meat. There are no critical nonmeat ingredients.
8.6.2.2 In-Process
Routine in-process samples should not be necessary, but can be helpful in the event of a problem and
the source(s) of microbial contamination must be determined.
8.6.2.3 Processing Environment
Routine environmental samples for salmonellae should not be necessary in a controlled operation
operating under GHP with adequate separation between raw meat processing areas and where cooked
meat products are exposed. Environmental sampling, however, can be helpful in the event a problem
does occur and the source(s) of contamination must be determined.
Swab or sponge samples should be collected to verify the effectiveness of cleaning and disinfecting
equipment before the start of operation. Analysis for aerobic colony count is typical, but other
tests (e.g., ATP-bioluminescence) may provide useful information.
Typical aerobic colony count levels encountered on thoroughly cleaned, disinfected stainless steel
are <500 CFU/cm2. Higher numbers may be encountered on other surfaces (e.g., nonmetal conveyor
belts).
8.6.2.4 Shelf Life
The final moisture content (i.e., <10%) and low aW levels make these products microbiologically
stable. The strips and thin sausage-shaped products may be higher in moisture for better palatability
86 8 Meat Products
as snacks. If aW levels are sufficiently high (e.g., >0.70), these products must be packaged in a low
oxygen atmosphere to prevent the growth of mold during extended storage or be formulated with a
mold inhibitor. Defective packaging seals can contribute to mold spoilage of these products during
storage, distribution and retail display.
8.6.2.5 End Product
These products are of low risk to public health and routine sampling is not recommended. If there is
reason to question whether GHP and HACCP are being applied in a manner to control enteric pathogens,
then sampling for an indicator (e.g., E. coli) or salmonellae is recommended. Recommended
testing for these products is summarized in Table 8.4.
8.7 Cooked Meat Products
8.7.1 Significant Organisms
8.7.1.1 Hazards and Controls
These products are perishable and must be refrigerated or frozen for storage or distribution. Cured
and uncured products are included in this section. The microbial hazards to consider in cooked perishable
meats include Salmonella, EHEC, L. monocytogenes and C. perfringens. Control of Salmonella,
EHEC and L. monocytogenes requires validated cooking procedures and recontamination prevention;
Table 8.4 Testing of dried meat products for microbiological safety and quality
Relative importance Useful testing
Critical
ingredients
Low These products do not contain nonmeat ingredients of significance for
microbiological safety or quality
In-process Low Routine in-process samples are not recommended
Processing
environment
Medium Sample equipment surfaces before start-up to verify efficacy of cleaning and
disinfecting. (See text for typical levels encountered)
Shelf life Low These products are inherently shelf-stable when properly dried and protected from
high humidity. The higher aw of snack products may require verification of
stability
End product Low Routine sampling is not recommended. If application of GHP and HACCP is in
question, sampling for an indicator (e.g., E. coli) or Salmonella should be
considered
Product Microorganism
Analytical
methoda Case
Sampling plan & limit/gb
n c m M
Low Dried meat E. coli ISO 16649-2 5 5 2 10 102
Sampling plan &
limit/25 gb
n c m M
Low Dried meat Salmonella ISO 6579 11 10c 0 0 –
aAlternative methods may be used when validated against ISO methods
bRefer to Appendix A for performance of these sampling plans
cIndividual 25 g analytical units (see Sect. 7.5.2 for compositing)
8.7 Cooked Meat Products 87
with cooking managed through the HACCP plan and recontamination managed through effective
application of GHP with verification through environmental monitoring (Codex Alimentarius 2009a).
Some products are given a final in-package listericidal treatment. Additives may also be used in
some countries to inactivate or restrict the growth of L. monocytogenes. Salmonella and EHEC
can survive on cooked refrigerated meat products but cannot multiply if the products are maintained
at <7°C.
Control of C. perfringens requires chilling cooked meat products at a rate that prevents unacceptable
multiplication of surviving spores and storing at <12°C. Historically, a vast majority of C. perfringens
outbreaks have occurred due to improper chilling or holding in foodservice operations (Brett 1998, Bates
and Bodnaruk 2003, Golden et al. 2009). Cured meat products contain sodium nitrite and generally have
a higher salt content than uncured products such as roast beef. As a result, cured meat or poultry products
rarely are implicated as a source of C. perfringens illness.
The microbial hazards on frozen cooked uncured meat products are similar to those for refrigerated
products except the vegetative cells of C. perfringens are quite sensitive to freezing and decline
during frozen storage. Also, L. monocytogenes cannot multiply while the product remains frozen.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission’s Code of Hygienic Practice for Meat (Codex Alimentarius
2005) provides guidance for managing microbiological risks associated with cooked meat products.
8.7.1.2 Spoilage and Controls
The rate of spoilage is influenced by many factors, such as storage temperature, initial number and
type of microorganisms when packaged, type of packaging and chemical composition. Spoilage by
psychrotrophic clostridia and lactic acid bacteria has occurred in commercial products having
extended refrigerated shelf life (e.g., ³35 days). Control consists of determining the source of the
spoilage bacteria, such as the raw meat or harborage sites in the raw processing environment, and
implementing appropriate controls.
8.7.2 Microbial Data
Table 8.5 summarizes useful testing for cooked meat products. Refer to the text for important details
related to specific recommendations.
8.7.2.1 Critical Ingredients
The nonmeat ingredients in cooked meat products are rarely a source of significant pathogens or
spoilage flora. Some ingredients (e.g., salt, sodium nitrite, sodium lactate, sodium diacetate) can
reduce the rate of spoilage and growth of L. monocytogenes and clostridia.
8.7.2.2 In-Process
The relative value of testing in-process samples versus processing environment samples for routine
assessment of Listeria spp. control is debatable. The decision to rely more on in-process over environmental
samples may be influenced by regulatory policies and the complexity of the equipment and
steps in the process after cooking. Routine in-process sampling is not performed by some manufacturers,
while others rely on in-process samples for assessing control. In-process samples can be helpful
when investigating a problem and are recommended. Routine sampling for salmonellae,
S. aureus or C. perfringens is not recommended, since the risk associated with these pathogens is
controllable through GHP and HACCP.
88 8 Meat Products
8.7.2.3 Processing Environment
The relative importance of verifying control of the processing environment depends on the risk to
consumers if the product becomes contaminated between cooking and final packaging. The products
of highest concern are those that support the growth of L. monocytogenes during normal storage and
distribution and do not have a listericidal treatment after final packaging, especially if the intended
consumers are highly susceptible to listeriosis. The frequency and extent of sampling also should
reflect consumer risk.
Monitoring programs that include sampling equipment and other surfaces that come into contact
with exposed cooked products before final packaging are recommended. Sponge samples from large
Table 8.5 Testing of cooked meat products for microbiological safety and quality
Relative importance Useful testing
Critical
ingredients
Low These products do not contain nonmeat ingredients of significance for
microbiological safety or quality
In-process High Monitoring the cooking parameters is essential
Medium For products that support L. monocytogenes growth, postcook samples can assess
control of Listeria spp. Typical levels encountered postcook:
• Listeria spp. – absent
Processing
environment
High For products that support L. monocytogenes growth, during production sample
product contact surfaces where cooked products are exposed to potential
contamination before packaging. Sponge or swab samples from floors, drains and
other nonproduct contact surfaces can provide an early indication of the level of
control and a potential risk of contamination for equipment and product. Typical
levels encountered:
• Listeria spp. – absent
Medium Sample equipment surfaces before start-up to verify efficacy of cleaning and
disinfecting. (See text for typical levels encountered)
Shelf life Medium Shelf life testing may be useful for refrigerated products with extended code dates
(see text). Shelf life testing of frozen cooked meats is not necessary
End product Medium Test for indicators for ongoing process control and trend analysis (see text)
Product Microorganism
Analytical
methoda Case
Sampling plan &
limits/gb
n c m M
Cooked meat Aerobic colony
count
ISO 4833 2 5 2 104 105
E. coli ISO 16649-2 5 5 2 10 102
S. aureus ISO 6888-1 8 5 1 102 103
Cooked uncured meat
(e.g., roast beef)
C. perfringens ISO 7937 8 5 1 102 103
Medium Routine sampling for pathogens is not recommended. If application of GHP or
HACCP is in question, the following sampling plans are recommended (see text)
Product Microorganism
Analytical
methoda Case
Sampling plan &
limits/25 gb
n c m M
Cooked meat Salmonella ISO 6579 11 10c 0 0 –
Cooked meat: No growth L. monocytogenes ISO 11290-2 NAd 5 0 102 –
Cooked meat: Supports
growth
L. monocytogenes ISO 11290-1 NA 5c 0 0 –
aAlternative methods may be used when validated against ISO methods
bRefer to Appendix A for performance of these sampling plans
cIndividual 25 g analytical units (see Sect. 7.5.2 for compositing)
dNA not applicable; used Codex criterion
8.7 Cooked Meat Products 89
areas of equipment should be collected during production. Samples can also be collected from
nonproduct
contact surfaces as an additional measure of control (Codex Alimentarius 2009a).
Environmental sampling for products given a validated final in-package listericidal treatment is not
recommended. Environmental monitoring for products that do not support growth depends on the
products produced in the facility (e.g., some products support growth and others do not), historical
trends and regulatory requirements.
The principles for control and monitoring of Listeria can also be applied to spoilage microorganisms
such as lactic acid bacteria. Swab or sponge samples can be collected before the start of operation
to verify the effectiveness of cleaning and disinfecting. Analysis for aerobic colony count is a
common analysis, but other tests (e.g., ATP-bioluminescence) may provide useful information.
Typical aerobic colony counts on thoroughly cleaned, disinfected stainless steel are <500 CFU/cm2.
Higher numbers may be encountered on other surfaces (e.g., nonmetal conveyor belts).
8.7.2.4 Shelf Life
Code dating practices can be validated by holding the product at a controlled temperature and performing
sensory evaluation and microbiological analysis at selected intervals, including packages
before, on and after the expected expiration date. Subsequent verification can be performed at a frequency
that reflects confidence in whether the product will consistently meet the stated expiration
date on the package. Shelf life testing of frozen cooked meat products is not necessary.
Validating that growth of L. monocytogenes will not occur within the code date applied on the package
may also be useful (EU Regulation 2073/2005/EC, Chap. 1, Sects. 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3). This regulation
defines the food safety criteria for the validation of RTE products (including meat products) regarding
presence or number of L. monocytogenes in the end product. The manufacturer should be able to demonstrate,
to the satisfaction of the competent authority, that the product will not exceed the limit of
102 CFU/g of L. monocytogenes throughout the shelf life. Therefore, the operator may establish intermediate
limits during the production process that should be low enough to guarantee that the limit of
102 CFU/g is not exceeded at the end of the shelf life and, for RTE products that are able to support the
growth of L. monocytogenes, that absence of the pathogen in 25 g of sample at the end of the manufacturing
process is assured. Guidelines for validation are available (Scott et al. 2005 and Chap. 2).
8.7.2.5 End Product
Recommended end product testing is summarized in Table 8.5. Testing for indicators such as aerobic
colony count and E. coli is useful to evaluate ongoing process control and trend analysis. Aerobic
colony counts typically encountered are <104 CFU/g and E. coli is typically <10 CFU/g. Indicator
tests during distribution and retail display cannot be used to assess the conditions during time of
manufacture. If high levels of E. coli are encountered at retail, investigational samples are necessary
to determine the reason such as poor hygienic conditions during manufacture and/or storage at elevated
temperatures (e.g., >7–8°C) that permit growth.
The Salmonella sampling plan in Table 8.5 assumes that it will not grow under the normal conditions
of distribution and storage and that the product will not receive a further cook step (i.e., case 11).
Use of case 10 or 12 would be appropriate if the product would be subject to further cooking (e.g.,
cooked meat used in a frozen entrée that is to be cooked prior to consumption) or if there is considerable
potential for produce abuse prior to consumption, respectively. The sampling plans for L. monocytogenes
are for ready-to-eat foods produced following the general principles of food hygiene for
control of L. monocytogenes and with an appropriate environmental monitoring program (Codex
Alimentarius 2009b).
If the reliable application of GHP and HACCP is in question, sampling for Salmonella and/or
L. monocytogenes may be appropriate. When evidence indicates a potential for contamination with
90 8 Meat Products
L. monocytogenes (e.g., positive food contact surface results or the effectiveness of corrective actions
has yet to be verified) sampling the food should be considered. The stringency of sampling should
reflect consumer risk (e.g., whether growth can occur in the food, intended consumers). Guidance on
increasing the stringency of sampling by sub-lotting is discussed in Chap. 5.
If the rate of chilling after cooking exceeds the critical limit in the HACCP plan, testing for
C. perfringens may provide useful information to determine the disposition of the lot. The sample
units should be taken from the center of the product or other region that is slowest to chill. Samples
should be submitted to the laboratory as refrigerated, not frozen, samples. The decision to test for C.
perfringens will depend on the available information (e.g., pH, aW, added inhibitors such as sodium
nitrite, lactate or diacetate), the extent of the deviation and options that may be available for product
disposition. A sampling plan is also provided for products in which temperature abuse is suspected
and S. aureus is of concern.
If there is a failure to meet the criteria for L. monocytogenes or Salmonella in Table 8.5, the typical
actions to take include (1) prevent the affected lot from being released for human consumption, (2)
recall the product if it has been released for human consumption, and (3) determine and correct the
root cause of the failure.
8.8 Fully Retorted Shelf-Stable Uncured Meats
8.8.1 Significant Organisms
The hazards and controls are the same as applied for other low-acid canned foods (see Chap. 24).
Spoilage of canned uncured meat products is controllable and should rarely occur. Incipient spoilage
may occur if the product is not retorted in a timely manner. This can occur when equipment breaks
down and the food is held for an extended period of time before retorting.
8.8.2 Microbial Data
There are no critical nonmeat or meat ingredients for these products. Routine in-process, environmental,
and end product testing are not recommended for either safety or quality. Current recommended
procedures for commercial processing based on GHP and HACCP yield products that are
commercially sterile and stable for the expected conditions of storage and distribution.
8.9 Shelf-Stable Cooked Cured Meats
8.9.1 Significant Organisms
8.9.1.1 Hazards and Controls
The hazards of significance in the raw meat ingredients used for these products are salmonellae,
C. botulinum and, in the case of products containing beef, E. coli O157:H7 and other EHEC strains.
The heat process used for shelf-stable canned cured meats destroys vegetative microorganisms, some
spores and sublethally damages other spores. Safety and stability depends upon the combined effect
of thermal destruction or injury of a low indigenous number of spores and inhibition of the survivors
by an adequate amount of added salt and sodium nitrite.
8.10 Snails 91
For shelf-stable liver, blood and bologna-style sausages, important factors to control are initial
spore load, heat treatment, pH, aw, and nitrite. For products like Italian mortadella and German
bruhdauerwurst, stability is achieved by heating to >75°C to inactivate vegetative cells, reducing aw
to <0.95 and heating in a sealed container to prevent recontamination.
Brawns are made shelf-stable by adjusting the pH to 5.0 with acetic acid and protecting the
product from recontamination after heating. Gelder smoked sausage (a traditional Dutch product) is
made shelf-stable by adjusting the pH to 5.4–5.6 with GDL, reducing aw to 0.97, vacuum-packing,
and heating for 1 h to a center temperature of 80°C.
8.9.1.2 Spoilage and Controls
These products are shelf-stable and generally do not undergo microbial spoilage during storage and
distribution. Spoilage might occur due to postprocessing contamination through leaks in the container
(e.g., in the seams of cans or through the clip-seals of plastic casings) or from growth of
Bacillus spp. just under the casing. The extent of growth is determined mainly by product composition
and the oxygen permeability of the casing or container.
8.9.2 Microbial Data
The ingredients added to these products are rarely a source of significant pathogens or spoilage
microorganisms. However, the level of some ingredients, such as salt, sodium nitrite, and acidulants
is critical for safety and spoilage control. Insufficient amounts of these ingredients can permit
growth of surviving spores, including C. botulinum, if present.
Routine in-process and environmental samples are not recommended. Products produced following
recommended guidance and programs based on GHP and HACCP should not experience microbial
spoilage. Routine sampling of these products is not recommended for either quality or safety.
8.10 Snails
8.10.1 Significant Organisms
The hazards to consider include salmonellae, shigellae, EHEC and parasites. The conditions of growing
and harvesting influence the potential presence of enteric pathogens. Snails should be cooked to inactivate
enteric pathogens and parasites. Freezing is another means to inactivate parasites. Recontamination
of the cooked snails should be prevented through GHP. Snails are also sold as a canned shelf-stable food
(see Chap. 24). Freezing or canning prevents microbial spoilage. Time and temperature of storage of
fresh snails and frozen snails after thawing will influence the rate of spoilage.
8.10.2 Microbial Data
There are no critical ingredients. Routine in-process and environmental samples are not normally
collected. Code dating practices for fresh snails can be validated as described for most other raw
foods. Enteric pathogens should be assumed to be present and cooking or canning will eliminate
these pathogens before they are eaten. Routine sampling of fresh and frozen snails for pathogens is
not recommended.
92 8 Meat Products
8.11 Frog Legs
8.11.1 Significant Organisms
Frog legs are typically distributed as a raw frozen product, which may be thawed during retail display.
The hazard of significance is Salmonella. Shigella may be a concern if frogs are raised in insanitary
ponds that may contain human waste. The time between capture and slaughter should be minimized.
Care should be exercised in removal of the legs to avoid cutting the intestinal tract. Processing water
should be chlorinated and equipment and contact surfaces should be cleaned and disinfected.
Guidance for the hygienic processing of frog legs is available from the Codex Alimentarius
Commission (Codex Alimentarius 1983). Freezing prevents microbial spoilage. Time and temperature
of storage after thawing will influence the rate of spoilage.
8.11.2 Microbial Data
There are no critical ingredients. Routine in-process and environmental samples are not normally
collected. See Sect. 8.3.2.3 for guidance assessing cleaning and disinfecting procedures. Microbial
spoilage of frozen frog legs should not occur. The Codex Alimentarius Commission guidance for end
product specifications is very general: “Frog legs should be free from microorganisms in amounts
harmful to man, free from parasites harmful to man and should not contain any substances originating
from microorganisms in amount which may represent a hazard to health” (Codex Alimentarius 1983).
Salmonellae should be assumed to be present on raw frog legs. Routine sampling of frozen frog legs
for salmonellae and other pathogens is not recommended.