Heavenly Scenery of Green Canyon Indonesia

Green Canyon, Pangandaran, Indonesia

Cranberry

Cranberry

Cranberry

Anak Krakatau on Sunda Strait

Anak Krakatau in Sunda Strait

Anak Krakatau in Sunda Strait

Satay : Indonesian Steak

Satay

Satay

White Peach

White Peach

White Peach

Autumn Red Peach

Autumn Red Peach

Autumn Red Peach

Apricot Fruit

Apricot Fruit

Pineapple

Pineapple

Table Grape

Table Grape

Bee Orchid(OphrysApifera)

Bee Orchid (OphrysApifera)

Kangkung: water spinach farming

Kangkung or water spinach is asian vegetable which has so many benefits. more over, it is very easy to cultivate water spinach. you just need to put a part of the plant to soil. the soil must be kept watered every day and the plant will grow fast. the branch will grow as soon as the root grows, the plant will grow branch a lot. the most important condition is to keep the moisture of soil. you can harvest the water spinach in a month.

Kangkung or water spinach

harvesting time

another part of kangkung lifecycle is flowering season. when the water spinach got nutrition enough the plant will grow flower. the flower is Saxophone-like shaped. the flower blossom means the kangkung is ready to be harvested.

Analysis of genes for stigma coloration in rice

The anthocyanic pigmentation of the rice apiculus is controlled by three complementary
genes— C, A, and P —which serve as the basic coloration genes. The
genetic control of stigma color is more complex. To shed more light on genes for
stigma coloration, F 1 and F 2 data for 196 varietal crosses were investigated to
explain the whole pattern of segregation by assuming certain Mendelian genes. In
ordinary cases, the stigma is colored only in plants having C, A, and P. Two
independent genes, Ps-2 and Ps-3, take part in stigma coloration, Ps-2 being
relatively frequent in indicas and Ps-3 in japonicas. For Ps-3, an inhibitor, I-Ps-3,
was found, which seems to have two loci according to variety. In addition, two
complementary inhibitors are assumed to be present in some of the varieties. A
Japanese upland variety, Gaisen-mochi, having a colorless apiculus and colored
stigma, has Ps-1, which expresses stigma color even when P is absent (recessive).
An inhibitor for this gene, I-Ps-1, needs P to function. Four genes— P, Ps-3,
Ph, and Ps-1 —are located in linkage group II in that order. Their recombination
values were estimated.

Meat Products

8.1 Introduction
Meat is an important international commodity, consisting of fresh (chilled and frozen) meats and a
wide variety of fermented, dry-cured and smoked, as well as cooked products. Shipping whole lamb
carcasses and parts occurs. Beef and pork may also be shipped as half-carcasses or converted into
primal cuts, retail cuts, boneless meat and trimmings. Raw meat is an important source of human
enteric diseases caused by salmonellae, thermophilic Campylobacter spp., toxigenic E. coli O157:H7
and other enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) strains and Yersinia enterocolitica. In general, foodborne
disease from these pathogens is due to under cooking or under processing (e.g., improperly
fermented meats). The pathogens also may be transferred from the raw meat to ready-to-eat foods.
Outgrowth of surviving spores of Clostridium perfringens during slow chilling or improper holding
of cooked meats is also a problem in foodservice and home settings.
Fresh chilled meat is highly perishable and will spoil under the best of conditions unless frozen.
Meat is preserved by adding salt and other ingredients and processing (e.g., fermenting, drying, cooking,

Prospective use of Oryza longistaminata for rice breeding

Morphological types, fertility, and outcrossing rates were studied in a population
of 10 interspecific backcross progenies ( O. longistaminata/ O. sativa// O. sativa)
left under open pollination conditions. By segregation analysis at eight electrophoretic
loci, single-locus and multilocus estimates of the outcrossing rates were
calculated. In the first generation, 75% of the seeds came from outcrossing; this
rate decreased to 35% in the second generation, following pollen fertility restoration.
Outcrossing rates appeared primarily related to plant sterility and secondarily
to stigma length and exsertion. At the morphological level, an important diversity
of plant types was observed in the first generation, but plants were characterized
by various wild traits. The second generation spontaneously evolved toward a
more cultivated type, and transgressive segregants were observed for different
morphological traits. Allelic segregations at the F 1 level were normal, but the
second generation exhibited highly significant distortions. A loss of alleles coming
from the wild species was observed for 5 of the 8 loci and for all 10 families.
Oryza longistaminata is a wild species of rice that grows widely throughout intertropical
Africa. It covers a large range of ecological sites, from flooded plains to temporary
ponds, and propagates itself by developing vigorous rhizomes (Ghesquiere 1985). This
species is allogamous, with a self-incompatibility system, and shows the extreme
maximum values of stigma and anther length and number of pollen grains within the
Sativa species group (Oka and Morishima 1967).
This species shows significant diversity at the isozyme level (Ghesquiere 1988) and
appears to be among the most distant species from O. sativa within the Sativa group
(Second 1985). O. longistaminata has not intervened during the domestication of O.
sativa, nor in the latter’s diversification on the African continent since its introduction
there, because of the strong reproductive barrier that isolates the former from all other
species. This barrier is due to the action of two complementary lethal genes that cause
abortion of the embryo (Chu and Oka 1970a, Ghesquiere 1988). In spite of this barrier,
hybrid plants may be obtained, either by artificial crossing or, rarely, in seed sets
collected from wild plants along the borders of ricefields.

Traditional highland rices originating from intersubspecific recombination in Madagascar

 Genetic divergence among traditional rices from Madagascar was investigated on
the basis of 39 morphophysiological traits and 19 isozyme genes. Comparison
with Asian and African rices revealed the existence of new varietal types that do
not fit the existing classification schemes. These types are mainly lowland
cultivars grown in the high plateau region at altitudes ranging from 1,000 to
1,500 m. Based on morphophysiology, they are intermediate between indica and
tropical japonica types for most traits, although they are the tallest. Isozyme data
show a limited global gene diversity and a marked bipolar structure similar to the
classical indica-japonica structure with, however, a peculiar predominance of
allele 2 at locus Amp-1, forming multilocus types that are rare or absent in Asia.
Classical associations between some isozymes and some morphological traits
are almost nonexistent. The introduction of rices from Asia to Madagascar was
thus probably accompanied by a strong founder effect and was followed by
intensive intersubspecific recombination. Adaptation to new ecological niches
took place without pronounced disruption of subspecific complexes of coadapted
genes.

Sandy land

The indica-japonica differentiation is the main feature of varietal diversity in Asian
cultivated rice (see Oka 1988 for a review). Such a pattern most probably arose from
multiple domestications and the associated founder effects. Post-domestication varietal
migrations were extensive, and the two types are now distributed over most Asian
regions. There remains evidence of ecological specialization, leading indica varieties
to be grown mainly under tropical lowland conditions, and japonica varieties mainly
under temperate conditions and tropical upland conditions. In some environments,
such as tropical highlands, both types are sympatric and are thus exposed to intersubspecific
introgressions. An isozymic survey of Asian traditional varieties (Glaszmann
1987, 1988) suggested that few indica-japonica intermediates exist, and that most
intermediate-like varieties are more probably consequent to the contribution of local
wild rices rather than to intervarietal recombination.

Applications and Use of Criteria and Other Tests

2011
7.1 Introduction
As discussed in Chap. 1, it is widely recognized that application of prerequisite programs at
preharvest,
harvest and postharvest level (e.g., Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), Good Farming
Practices (GFP), Good Veterinary Practices (GVP), Good Hygiene Practices (GHP), Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMP), etc.) and Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) program
is the most effective food safety management strategy. Effective control of undesirable microorganisms

Genetic diversity and intervarietal relationships in rice ( Oryza sativa L.) in Africa

Twelve African cultivars of Oryza sativa were sampled to examine the biological
significance of varietal classification based on isozyme studies. Analyses of F 1
hybrid sterility and of F 2 segregations showed good correspondence between
biochemical markers and observed reproductive barriers. Genetic markers for
some vegetative and reproductive traits were identified. Such linkages could be
involved in the relationships between classifications based on various criteria.
The variability in Africa of the Asian cultivated rice species Oryza sativa has been
described and analyzed with regard to isozymic polymorphism (Ghesquière and
Second 1983; de Kochko 1987, 1988) as well as agromorphological traits (Jacquot and
Arnaud 1979, Miezan and Ghesquière 1986). These studies have shown that the genetic
diversity of O. sativa in Africa is similar to that in Asia and that it is organized in two
main groups corresponding to the indica and japonica subspecies.
The indica-japonica distinction is partly based on the existence of reproductive
barriers among Asian cultivars of O. sativa (Oka 1988). It is thus important to know
if the indica-japonica distinction, maintained in Africa by enzymatic diversity, also
reflects differences in the genetic pool, as in Asia.
Materials and methods

Microbiological Testing in Customer–Supplier Relations

6.1 Introduction
The complete food chain from farm to fork is characterized by a sequence of supplier–customer
interfaces. These interfaces imply the establishment of contracts defining the requirements of the
customers with respect to their suppliers. These contracts also reflect the commitment of the supplier
to guarantee the delivery of goods in compliance with the agreed-upon requirements.
This sequence of interfaces plays an important role in fulfilling a Food Safety Objective (FSO) at
the level of the final consumer as defined by public health authorities. As shown in Fig. 6.1, individual

How was rice differentiated into indica and japonica?

The evolutionary dynamics of the indica-japonica differentiation was studied from
the viewpoint of population genetics. Indica and japonica are distinguished by
genes and characters associated with each other nonrandomly. In indica/japonica
hybrid progenies, the same direction of gene and character association found
among the cultivars was generally observed. This means a trend toward the
restriction of recombination among several independent loci. Accordingly, intermediate
types between indica and japonica are relatively infrequent, even if natural
hybridization occurs frequently between them. lndicas and japonicas are isolated
by the restriction of recombination in the hybrids.

Corrective Actions to Reestablish Control

5.1 Introduction
The primary goal of a food safety system is to prevent, eliminate or reduce hazards to the extent
feasible by existing technology. Food safety systems are based on knowledge of the potential hazards
that can occur in food operations, through the process of hazard analysis. Control measures are then
selected and applied to ensure the food will comply with requirements established by the manufacturer,
customers and control authorities. It is in the interest of manufacturers to produce foods that
consumers can rely upon as being safe.
Many countries require food safety systems that incorporate the principles of Good Hygiene
Practices (GHP) and Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) programs (Codex Alimentarius

Screening and analysis of wide compatibility loci in wide crosses of rice

With indica and japonica testers to screen out wide compatibility types, a number
of varieties seemed to be indicas but differed from them by showing semisterility
in crosses with Ketan Nangka, a donor of the wide compatibility allele (neutral
allele). Another varietal group showed good fertility with indica and japonica
testers, but revealed sterility in crosses with Ketan Nangka. Thus, Ketan Nangka
is suggested as a standard variety, along with the aus varieties, which show semisterility
in crosses with indica and japonica testers but normal fertility with most
aus varieties. A set of four varieties—Achar Bhog, Ketan Nangka, IR36, and a
japonica type—is proposed as standard testers for hybrid sterility. F 1 hybrid
sterility in rice is understood with allelic interactions at the S-5 locus. With the
identification system for S-5, a large number of crosses were made to test the
extent to which the neutral allele at the S-5 locus is effective. Hybrid sterility in
Penuh Baru II and aus varieties, which is not explained by the testers for S-5, was
found to be due to an additional locus rather than to a new allele. The neutral
allele at the S-5 locus can now be effectively used, but a new neutral allele
indicated by Dular would also be important in rice breeding.

Verification of Environmental Control

 4.1 Introduction
The microbiological safety of industrially manufactured foods is based on the effective design and
implementation of Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
(HACCP).
Published case studies demonstrate the impact of postprocess contamination (ICMSF 2002). Even
when strict control at all CCPs ensures destruction or reduction of pathogens to acceptable levels
during processing, foods may become contaminated during subsequent processing and handling. Such

Verification of Process Control

Many food microbiologists are familiar with sampling plans that use microbiological data to make
decisions regarding the quality or safety of a specific lot of food. Ideally, the statistical basis for this
type of testing is that analyses are performed on a sufficient number of samples from a single lot such
that there is a high degree of confidence that the lot does not have an unacceptable level of microorganisms
that affect the quality or suitability of the food.
An important concept in understanding the statistical basis for such lot-by-lot or within-lot testing
is that of defect rates, i.e., the portion of servings or containers that do not satisfy some attribute, such
as absence in a defined quantity of product, or below a specified concentration (ICMSF 2002). Such
sampling programs become increasingly more resource intensive as the acceptable defect rate
becomes smaller. Once a standard method with the appropriate sensitivity has been selected for analyzing
samples, achieving the desired test stringency as the defect rate decreases is typically accomplished
by analyzing more samples from the lot or by increasing the size of the analytical units
examined. When the acceptable defect rate is low (e.g., <5%), the number of samples that need to be
analyzed can be a severe practical impediment to using microbiological testing. For example, consider
two lots of ready-to-eat food that are required to be free of Salmonella, one with 50% of the
servings contaminated and a second where 1% of the servings are defective. In the first lot, examining
three servings would have a high probability (87.5%) of identifying the lot as contaminated, whereas
the probability of identifying the second lot as containing Salmonella would only be 63% if 100 servings
were examined.
Another important concept associated with within-lot testing is the underlying assumption that
there is little or no knowledge about the product and the processes and conditions under which it was
manufactured and distributed. In such instances, microbiological testing is used as a control measure
to segregate sound and unsound lots. An important consequence of this assumption is that since no
prior knowledge of the lot is assumed, the results from testing one lot cannot be considered predictive
of the status of other lots.
While within-lot testing plays an important role in food safety particularly for examination of foods
at ports of entry for regulatory actions, typically microbiological data collected is not based on traditional
within-lot sampling plans and statistics. Instead, sampling is often conducted periodically and
on only a portion of the lots. Furthermore, the extent of testing (i.e., number and size of samples analyzed)
is typically at a level that it does not provide a high level of confidence that a lot contaminated
at a low rate would be detected. This is not to imply that this type of testing does not provide manufacturers
or control authorities with important microbiological data; however, too often such testing
programs are conducted in a manner that does not provide the best use of the data acquired.
Chapter 3
Verification of Process Control
34 3 Verification of Process Control
These testing programs are referred to as process control testing or between-lot testing, and their
usefulness can be enhanced significantly if they are appropriately designed, including appropriate
analysis, interpretation and review of the data. When this is done testing programs provide a powerful
tool for evaluating and correcting the systems used to control microbiological safety and quality
before the system crosses the threshold where the product is no longer suitable for commerce. This
chapter provides a brief introduction to the concepts and application of this type of microbiological
data acquisition. Detailed requirements for establishing such a testing program are found in other
standard references (Does et al. 1996; Roes et al. 1999; ICMSF 2002; Hubbard 2003; NAS US
National Academy of Sciences 2003; ECF 2004; NIST/SEMATECH 2006).
Understanding the differences in the goals and assumptions associated with within-lot and
between-lot testing is important for successful process control testing. Within-lot testing is used to
establish the safety or quality of a specific lot of product, presumably because of a lack of knowledge
about the effectiveness of the means for controlling contamination and ensuring safe production, processing
and marketing. The purpose of between-lot testing is not to establish the safety of a specific
lot; rather safety is assumed to have been achieved by establishing and validating processes and practices
that control significant hazards including the variability of ingredients, processes and products.
The purpose of between-lot testing is to verify that the process and practices for ensuring safety are
still performing as intended. The underlying assumption in this case is that there is detailed knowledge
of how the food was manufactured. Thus, process control sampling is most effectively implemented
as part of an overall food safety risk management program such as HACCP (ICMSF 1988).
To reiterate the different applications of within-lot and between-lot testing – if the testing of all lots
using within-lot sampling plans was implemented in a HACCP program, that sampling would be both
a control measure (that would likely be a critical control point) and part of monitoring activities.
Conversely, between-lot testing would be used as part of the verification phase of HACCP. Thus,
failure to meet a within-lot sampling plan would indicate a potentially unacceptable lot whereas
failure of a between-lot sampling plan would signal a potential loss of control of a HACCP
program.
As indicated above, the purpose of process control testing is to determine whether a control system
is functioning as designed; i.e., producing servings that have a defect rate below a specified value or
within a specified range. An inherent assumption made in conducting between-lot microbiological
testing is that actions have been taken to reduce the variability among lots so that the variability
between lots is minimized or that the system is consistently operating at a level of control such that
the products are substantially better than the specified acceptable level. It is questionable whether a
HACCP program could be truly considered under control if there is a large between-lot variation.
Thus, between-lot testing is most effective when there is little variation in the mean and standard
deviation of the log concentrations of a hazard among lots under normal operation. A small betweenlot
variance allows a loss of control of the food safety or quality system to be more readily identified
with the least amount of microbiological sample analysis.
As a simple example of the difference between within-lot and between-lot sampling, consider a
company that has two processing lines, one old and less reliable, and one new and highly reliable, for
the same product. The company wants to ensure a defect rate of <1% of that product from either line.
For product from the old line, where there is less confidence in the reliability of the process, the
company may opt to test each lot. In this case, end product testing is used as a critical control point.
Given that the within lot variability of product from the old line is higher, the manufacturer might
even choose to use a sampling plan that involves a greater number of samples so as to have more
confidence that the results of the sampling plan are representative of the entire lot. Conversely, for
the new line, the company could apply the same sampling plan but draw the samples from a greater
number of lots; i.e., effectively considering the process as a continuous lot, or a series of large lots,
with the lot being defined by a period of time and lots overlapping in time. This is the basis of
the moving window approach, exemplified in Sect. 3.4. In the moving window approach,
3.2 How to Verify that a Process is Under Control 35
an increase in the number of positive results over time indicates a trend toward loss of control.
In this case the same sampling plan is used to verify the process.
Appropriate statistical analysis can identify when the incidence of defective units significantly
exceeds the tolerable defect rate. If the incidence exceeds that level, the manufacturer should investigate
the cause of the elevated defect rate to determine why the process is no longer functioning as
intended and should take corrective action. Examination of the system’s performance over time also
provides useful information and insights into the type of failures that occur (ICMSF 2002). Process
control testing is most effective when it can detect an issue at a level or frequency below that which
would be considered unacceptable for safety or quality if it were to enter the marketplace. In this way
corrective actions can be taken before a critical limit is exceeded.
3.2 How to Verify that a Process is Under Control
The actual microbiological methods used to detect, identify and enumerate microorganisms of concern
for process control verification are essentially the same as those used for within-lot testing. These
methods are available in a variety of standard references (e.g., ISO, AOAC, FDA Bacteriological
Analytical Manual, American Public Health Association etc.) and are not discussed further.
Like within-lot testing, microbiological criteria established for a process control testing program
can be based on either 2 or 3 class attributes testing plans; i.e., presence/absence or a numerical limit
(or limits in the case of three class plans) or variables testing (i.e., full range of quantitative data).
Similarly, attribute testing can be based on a 2-class or 3-class sampling plan. Process control sampling
plans can be applied to finished products, in-process samples or ingredients. Ideally a decision
on the analytical approach used is reached early in the development of the process control sampling
program. The approach selected strongly influences the types of data needed during the initial phases
of establishing the program. A decision on the approach used should be determined before establishing
the microbiological criteria (i.e., decision criteria) for the program.
3.2.1 Information Required to Establish a Process Control Testing Program
As indicated above, use of process control testing is based on detailed knowledge of the product
and process. A meaningful process control testing program requires detailed knowledge of the
levels or frequency at which the microorganism of concern can be expected in a product when it is
produced and handled properly. This includes information on the variation in those levels both
between lots and within lots. Thus, the first step in establishing a process control testing program
to verify continued successful operation of food safety or quality system is to gather baseline data
on the performance of the food safety system when it is functioning as intended. This is commonly
referred to as a process capability study. During this period, intensive acquisition of data that characterizes
the performance of the system is undertaken, either by generating new data from tests on
the system or by collating existing data. The data collected are specific to the system being evaluated.
This can be as specific as the performance of a single line within a manufacturing plant or as
broad as a commodity class for an industry. However, the latter requires a great deal of forethought
and effort to ensure that the acquisition of data is not biased and adequately represents an entire
industry. On a national basis, this is typically done through a series of national baseline studies; a
major undertaking that is typically done by a national government or industry representative body.
The sensitivity of the methods and sampling plans selected should be adequate to provide sufficient
data on the true incidence of defects within a lot as well as prevalence (the average rate of defects
over time) of the microbiological hazard in the food. Ideally the sensitivity will be set at a level
36 3 Verification of Process Control
that is sufficient to detect the pathogen or quality defect at least a portion of the time. Historical
within-lot testing results can be highly useful for determining the system’s performance and
variability.
When conducting a process capability study, care must be taken to ensure that the data collected
represent product manufactured when the food safety system is under control. If not, it is likely to
increase the variability of the levels (or frequencies) of the microbiological hazard that will form the
basis of the reference level against which ongoing performance will be assessed. This could decrease
the ability of the process control program to identify when the system is not functioning as intended.
The duration of a process capability study will vary with product, pathogen and purpose, but it should
be long enough to generate sufficient data to ensure that the variability in the process has been characterized
accurately. At a minimum, 30 lots should be examined so that the influence of sampling
error is acceptably small and that the performance characterization is reasonably robust. There are
instances where the process control study may need to be conducted for longer periods or in phases.
For example, if raw ingredient contamination varies substantially over the course of a year, then the
process capability study may need to consider seasonality as a factor, thereby extending the duration
of the study for a full year. In such instances, it is possible to conduct the process capability study for
30 days, perform initial analyses and set initial control limits; and then review and revise the analysis
and control limits, if necessary, as additional data are accumulated. The inclusion of such data in the
process control study depends, in part, on a value judgment related to whether the product is deemed
under control during those periods when high levels are observed due to season or supplier. If the
process is not deemed as being under control, then the data derived from it should not be included in
the reference level data set. It also implies that means for preventing the increased defect rates associated
with seasonality or supplier will need to be immediately identified since, once implemented, the
process control testing program based on the process control study that does not include the period
higher defect rate will appropriately identify the process as being out of control during those
periods.
As indicated above, process control testing programs are most effective when they detect loss of
control before a critical limit is exceeded. For that reason, the microbiological limits for process
control testing programs employed by companies are frequently established to effectively detect
changes before a regulatory limit is exceeded. This allows corrective actions to be taken proactively.
However, this proactive approach can be difficult to implement if competent authorities establish
limits based on “zero tolerance” instead of specifying a specific microbiological criterion based on
risk or on specific testing protocols.
Process control testing can be used for assessing both food safety and food quality, and is not
restricted to microbiological testing. Simple, easily performed physical and/or chemical measures of
the impact of microbial contamination can offer distinct advantages over more sophisticated testing
methods. For example, sterility testing of UHT milk products is amenable to process control testing
based on sensory evaluation combined with a pH determination (von Bockelmann 1989).
3.2.2 Setting Microbiological Criteria, Limits and Sampling Plans
The concentration of microorganisms varies in lots of food and is often described by a log normal
distribution. Such distributions are open-ended functions and high values can potentially occur even
when the system is in control. However, such events should be rare and a high frequency of such
occurrences is evidence that the system is no longer under control. A microbiological criterion establishes
the decision criterion to assess whether a microbiological testing result could have occurred by
chance alone or whether the food safety or quality system has undergone some significant change
such that it is no longer functioning as intended.
3.3 Routine Data Collection and Review 37
The microbiological limit associated with a process that is under control effectively establishes
that decision criterion, based on the results of the initial process capability study. Assuming that the
current level of control within a plant or an industry is deemed acceptable, a limit can be established
in combination with an appropriate sampling plan so that the frequency of detecting a positive result
or a specific concentration would be unlikely to occur by chance alone. For example, a result that
exceeds the 95% probability value would only be expected to occur, on average, about once in 20
samples. If the frequency were higher, it would be indicative that the system is out of control. An
increase in the number and size of analytical units examined increases the likelihood of detecting a
positive result so that the decision criteria are specific to the microbiological criterion and sampling
plan established. Establishing the stringency of a microbiological criterion is a risk management
activity. Thus, the specific sampling plan thresholds selected (e.g., 95 or 99% confidence) may take
into account a range of scientific and other parameters such as assessed risk, severity of the hazard,
technological capability, public health goals, cost of taking action when the process is actually in
control, or consumer preferences and expectations. Because this is a risk management issue and not
a risk assessment, no specific value of probability of detection serves as a standard criterion. For
example, consider two situations that a country or company might assess in establishing a microbiological
limit for a food product. First, consider a product where the industry’s food safety or quality
systems is based on a single, well established technology that is operating with a substantial safety
margin to control a relatively mild hazard and has both a low between-lot and within-lot variance.
In that instance a microbiological limit based on 99.99% of the baseline distribution (i.e., £0.001%
of the test values from the program operating as intended would exceed the microbiological limit)
might be deemed sufficient to protect public health and the microbiological criterion would be
established accordingly. In such a situation, the microbiological limit established would result in the
appropriate acceptance of the vast majority of this product. Such a process control standard would
have little impact on the industry’s current performance. In contrast, consider an industry where
there is substantial variability among the technologies, practices and standards of care used by individual
companies, leading to substantial between-lot (and in some instances within-lot) variability.
In this case, the country or company might establish a microbiological limit at 80% of the current
baseline distribution (i.e., 1 in 5 of samples as currently produced would be deemed unacceptable).
Over time a process control microbiological limit of such a magnitude would be likely have a large
impact on the companies that are poorer performers; i.e., their food systems would be considered as
not functioning as intended. Conversely, the limit would have minimal impact on companies that are
good performers. The end result would be to decrease both the mean and variance of the log concentration
of the hazard in servings of the product entering commerce. A similar outcome would
occur over time if the stringency of a within-lot testing program was increased.
3.3 Routine Data Collection and Review
Once established, process control testing requires routine testing of only a small number of samples.
The number of lots that need to be tested, the frequency of testing and the number of samples from
each lot depends on the inherent defect rate when the food safety or quality system is functioning as
intended and the degree of confidence that the microbiological limit is not being exceeded by the
manufacturer or country. The specific testing requirements of the process control sampling plan
depend on the type of process control analysis approach being employed (e.g., CUSUM, Moving
Window) (ICMSF 2002). Process control testing programs can also include variations in testing frequency
based on process performance; e.g., to increase testing when increased defects are detected
or to decrease the frequency of testing when results are consistently acceptable over time. However,
rules for variable sampling frequencies should be formulated with a clear understanding of the effect
38 3 Verification of Process Control
that the alternate sampling frequencies have on the ability of the testing program to detect an emerging
loss of process control and to be able to respond in time to prevent unacceptable product from
entering commerce.
Implementation of process control testing programs requires effective data management systems
and the ongoing evaluation of collected data over time. This is usually done through control charting
where the data are arrayed over time (Fig. 3.1). Graphical representation is often a useful tool as an
initial evaluation of the data. Comparing these data with the data collected in the routine monitoring
of critical control points in HACCP plans and other verification data can be useful for interpreting
the results of the process control testing and enhancing the identification of the underlying causes of
process deviations For most food microbiology concerns, the lower limit would not typically be
considered a decision criterion, with the possible exception of fermented foods or probiotic-containing
foods; however, the lower limit may reflect the limit of detection of the test. In the hypothetical
example in Fig. 3.1, a loss of control is apparent at weeks 50 and 51 that should have elicited investigation
to restore control. Additionally, a general increasing trend began at week 42 and became
apparent by week 46–47. This could have stimulated corrective action investigations even before a
loss of control occurred.
3.4 Competent Authority Process Control Program Examples
The use of process control testing for regulatory verification of food safety programs began in the
1990s as competent authorities began to incorporate HACCP into their regulatory programs. The use
of process control analysis techniques provided them with a statistically sound means of establishing
microbiological testing as a HACCP verification tool, while minimizing the economic impact of testing
on both business operators and the competent authority. While the techniques are increasingly
being used by industry and governments, the greatest adoption of this approach has been in North
America. Examples of early use of this approach follow.
3.4.1 Meat and Poultry
One of the first uses of process control programs by competent authorities was in the Pathogen
Reduction/Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) Systems rule (USDA 1996).
This regulation established two microbiological criteria as a means of verifying HACCP plans for
meat and poultry products:
2
3
4
5
6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (weeks)
Log CFU/g
Fig. 3.1 Hypothetical
control chart for a microbial
indicator assay conducted
weekly. The center horizontal
line (—) represents the
hypothetical microbiological
criterion and the two flanking
lines (− −) represent 95%
upper and lower confidence
limits
3.4 Competent Authority Process Control Program Examples 39
1. Testing for Escherichia coli as an indicator of fecal contamination and adequate chilling
performed
by individual business operators.
2. Salmonella enterica testing performed by USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS).
The microbiological limits established by FSIS were based on extensive review of baseline studies,
regulatory testing and industry data for various classes of meat and poultry products (USDA 1995).
Built into these standards was a goal of decreasing the incidence of foodborne disease attributable to
meat and poultry. The program employed a between-lot moving window approach (i.e., as each new
test result is obtained the window moves and the oldest result are discarded), where the results of
single samples taken on individual production days are examined over the course of a specified number
of days. The frequency of positive samples over that moving time frame is then related to the
defect rate that is expected for the specific meat or poultry product. The testing required of manufacturers;
i.e., the presence of biotype I E. coli as an indicator of fecal contamination, is based on a
3-class attribute sampling plan. The testing by FSIS for S. enterica is based on a 2-class plan in conjunction
with samples taken periodically by regulatory personnel over a specified number of days.
Failure to meet the microbiological limit is considered indicative that the probability that the facility
is not achieving the level of control required was >99% (USDA 1996). The Salmonella performance
standards are not lot acceptance/rejection standards. The detection of Salmonella in a specific lot of
carcasses or ground product does not, by itself, result in condemnation of the lot. Instead, the standards
are intended to ensure that each establishment is consistently achieving an acceptable level of
performance with regard to controlling and reducing enteric pathogens on raw meat and poultry
products (USDA 1996).
The FSIS regulation and requirements are intended to evolve to address new risks and availability
of new data. Development of process control microbiological criteria is being considered by other
national governments and intergovernmental organizations. For example, the EU has established
process control-based hygiene criteria for controlling Salmonella in raw poultry (EFSA 2010), and
the Codex Committee on Food Hygiene is considering a process control approach.
3.4.2 Juice
A more limited use of microbiological testing for process control is employed in the US FDA’s
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP); Procedures for the Safe and Sanitary
Processing and Importing of Juice; Final Rule (FDA 2001). In this example the competent authority
was concerned about the underlying scientific assumption that enteric pathogens would not become
internalized in citrus fruit. The regulation has an exemption for citrus fruit juice producers enabling
them to fulfill the required 5-D pathogen reduction by treating the surface of the fruit prior to the
juice being expressed. This exemption was based on data that suggest enteric bacteria are limited to
the surface of the fruit. This prompted a requirement that manufacturers choosing to use only surface
treatments must analyze a 20-mL sample for every 1,000 gallons (~4,000 L) produced per day
for generic E. coli, using a moving window analysis based on a 7-day window, where two positive
samples in a 7-day window are deemed to indicate the process is no longer in control. This requires
the manufacturer to investigate the cause of the deviation and divert juice to pasteurization after the
juice is expressed. Based on extensive baseline studies of commercial juice operations indicating the
range of initial contamination levels, juice that is successfully treated to achieve a 5-D reduction
(99.999%) is likely to have <0.5% probability of having two positives in a 7-day window after 20
samples. Conversely, a reduction that yields only 3-D inactivation is calculated to result in a 34%
frequency of 2 positive E. coli findings within the 7-day window with 20 samples, which would
detect the process failure (Garthright et al. 2000; FDA 2001).

Cytogenetic, electrophoretic, and root studies of javanica rices

Intercrosses among cultivars of traditional upland varieties and bulu varieties of
Indonesia as well as of the dual-purpose type, the aus varieties, were made to
elucidate their cytogenetic and biochemical relationships as well as similarities in
their root systems. Based on pollen and spikelet fertility, the bulu and upland
varieties showed slightly higher genetic affinity with each other than with the aus
rices; however, the aus group bore similarities to the upland and bulu varieties
based on their root characteristics. Pollen mother cells of the F 1 hybrids showed
slightly lower frequencies of loose pairing at pachynema and of laggards, trivalents,
bridges, and fragments at meiosis than the parents, which also showed

Validation of Control Measures

2.1 Introduction
ICMSF previously discussed validation of control measures in the supply chain (Zwietering et al.
2010) and portions of that paper are included in this chapter. The flexibility offered by an outcome
based risk management system must be supported by demonstration that the selected control measures
actually are capable of achieving the intended level of control on a consistent basis. Validation is
defined by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (2008) as:
“Validation: Obtaining evidence that a control measure or combination of control measures, if properly implemented,

Evolutionary significance of differential regulation at the wx locus of rice

The waxy ( wx ) locus in rice, which specifies a major starch granule-bound protein
called Wx protein, is genetically well characterized. In addition to wx, at least two
nonwaxy alleles at the wx locus regulate the amount of the gene product as well
as amylose content (AC). The present study was carried out to learn to what
extent allelic differentiation at the wx locus is important for the diversity in AC
observed among nonwaxy cultivars. Among the naturally occurring variants tested,
AC was determined mainly by allelic changes at the wx locus. In addition, the
amount of the gene product was affected by temperature, modifiers, and gene
dosage in the same way AC was affected. These effects imply that AC is a quantitative
trait in segregating populations as is often reported in rice, even though it
is controlled simply by the amount of Wx protein. Allelic differentiation at the wx

Utility of Microbiological Testing for Safety and Quality

1.1 Introduction
This chapter is intended to provide an overview of microbiological testing, as well as an introduction
to the related concepts that are discussed in more detail in subsequent chapters or other ICMSF publications.
Microbiological testing is applied to food safety and quality management in a number of
ways. Governments may use pathogen or indicator testing for lot inspection or verification as a means

International cooperation in rice genetics

Rice is the principal food of nearly half of mankind. Yet, until recently, our knowledge
of rice genetics lagged behind that of other food crops such as wheat, maize, barley, and
tomato. However, several developments that took place during the last decade have
resulted in rice becoming one of the best known crops genetically and a model plant
for molecular genetic studies:
• association of linkage groups with cytologically identifiable chromosomes in
• publication of the Rice genetics newsletter (RGN) annually, starting with
• publication of proposed rules for gene symbolization in rice and a list of

Shrimp farming

Shrimp farming is a business of breeding shrimp rearing or by using tools that are needed to support the success of cultivation. Raising shrimp cultivation or requires technique and patience to endure it. Benefits can be obtained by breeding these shrimp are very large and promising.

Here are the things that must be considered in shrimp farming:

Terms Locations
- Areas along the coast with temperatures 26-28 degrees C
- Soil texture sandy clay
- The land base consists of sandy clay mud premises sand content <20%. Land should not be porous
- Types of brackish water or freshwater shrimp species tergandung optimal temperature 26-30 degrees C
- For the brackish water of salt / salinity = 0-35 per mile and optimal = 10-30 per mile; brightness of water = 25-30 cm (measured with a secchi disk)

Terms Pond Construction / Pond
- Resistant to blows big waves, strong winds and flooding
- The minimum distance from shore aquaculture is a minimum of 50 meters or 50 meters from the riverbank
- Levees should be solid and strong
- No leaking or seeping water and resistant to erosion
- There should be water circulation
- The channel entry with a separate water drainage

Farming and Agriculture on Ginger

"Ginger" or in Latin is called Zingiber officinale which we used to use as a spice in the kitchen, it is best if planted on land that gets enough sunlight. "


"Ginger" when planted in a shady garden, can grow and seems also fertile. However, the fertile leaves cuman. Even small tuber. Though we are not the target we want to take their leaves.

So far, there is the mistaken assumption that "ginger" can grow anywhere easily, so be plugged on lands that do not hoe, will usually produce bulbs "ginger" is disappointing.


PREPARING THE SOIL.

If a piece of land on the edge of the river approximately 45 m height above sea level, create gullies as deep as 75 cm - 1 m wide 1 / 2 m, the distance between the ditches that drain the other one with 1 / 2 m in order to cause excavation on it. After that leave it open just for 2 X 3 months in order to be manure or compost gradually each time with fertilizers, do not forget to cover them with soil, so fertilizer is not damaged in vain.
If at the beginning of the rainy season will have started down the drizzling rain, the gutters have been completed earlier given fertilizer and soil, so you can guludan-guludan as high as 30 cm, which later may be stuck seed "ginger". The distance between guludan guludan another one with a minimum should be 1 m. Because the plant "ginger" can later grow to a height of 80 cm, which is usually used sebagaibibit, usually pieces of roots of residence for one or some fruit unasnya (eyes). But in seeking seed "ginger" select pieces of the greatest living roots and thick.

Shellfish Blood

blood clam food is delicious and has been widely sold in

restaurants and street vendors. Weight of meat equal to

22.70 to 24.3% of total body weight.
Types of blood clams that have been known to live in the

waters of Indonesia is A. granosa (blood clam), A.

nodifera (blood clam), A. inflata (shellfish feather), A.

rhombea, and A. indica (mencos shellfish). Among the five

kinds of shells that many caught is mencos shells.



Another type is shellfish Wren (A. antiguata). Compared

with other types of oyster, mussel cultivation of blood

have been done by many countries including China, Taiwan,

Republic of Korea, Malaysia, and Thailand.

Papaya cultivation

GROWTH CONDITIONS 

Plants can be grown on high plains and 700 - 1000 masl, rainfall 1000 - 2000 mm / year, the optimum air temperature 22-26 degrees C and humidity about 40% and the wind is not too tight is very good for pollination. Soil fertile, friable, containing humus and have a lot to hold water, the ideal soil pH is neutral with a pH 6 -7. 

SEEDLINGS 

1. Requirements Seeds / Seed 

- The seeds are used as seeds taken from fruits that has been cooked properly and comes from the tree of choice. Fruit choice in halved to take the seeds.Seeds released later washed up the skin surrounding the seed is wasted and then dried in the shade. 

- The fresh seeds are used as seeds. Seedlings should not be taken from fruits that are too ripe / old and not from an old tree. 

2. Seed Preparation 

Needs 60 grams of seed per hectare (± 2000 plants). Seeds soaked in a solution of the NASA POC 2 cc / liter for 1-2 hours, drained and littered Natural GLIO then sown in a polybag size 20 x 15 cm. The media used is a mixture of two buckets of soil in the sieve plus a bucket of manure that has been cooked and sieved TSP plus 50 grams plus 30 grams of mashed Natural GLIO. 

Apple CUltivation

1. BRIEF HISTORY
Apples is an annual fruit crop from West Asia to sub-tropical climate. Apples have been planted in Indonesia since 1934 until today.
2. TYPES OF PLANTS
According to the systematics, including the apple crop:
1) Divisio: Spermatophyta
2) Subdivisio: Angiospermae
3) Class: Dicotyledonae
4) Order: Rosales
5) Family: Rosaceae
6) Genus: Malus
7) Species: Malus sylvestris Mill
Of the species Malus sylvestris Mill, there are various varieties that have characteristics or its own peculiarities. Some varieties of apple seed, among others: Rome Beauty, Manalagi, Anna, Princess Noble and Wangli / Lali Jiwo.
3. BENEFITS OF PLANTS
Apples contain lots of vitamin C and B. Besides apples often a choice of dieters as a meal substitute.

4. INVESTMENT CENTER
In Indonesia, apples can grow and bear fruit both in the upland areas. Sentra apple production in the Malang (Batu and Poncokusumo) and Pasuruan (Nongkojajar), East Java. In this region the apple has been cultivated since 1950, and grew rapidly in 1960 to the present. In addition other areas
dinanami many apples are East Java (Kayumas-Situbondo, Banyuwangi), Central Java (Tawangmangu), Bali (Buleleng and Tabanan), West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara and South Sulawesi. While planting the world's centers in Europe, America and Australia.

Ways of planting grapes in a Pot

The grapes are not only delicious to be enjoyed, but also beautiful to look at.Plants that grow vine crops is often used as a pergola. These plants can not only provide shade, but also hanging fruit often makes for a look exasperated.Even more encouraging, the results of research experts, the grapes as a potential anti-cancer drugs and heart. In fact, research suggests, the grape is good as an anti-cancer is a European grape varieties that can produce high in our country.If your land is very limited even though to make the pergola, plant vines in pots are a solution. In addition to its production is quite good, tabulampot wine can also be formed according to your wishes. Thus in addition to being decorative, these plants become a useful crop of fruit for health.Requirements and PreparationTo start the grapes, the first thing to do is to select varieties suitable planting sites. If the planting site in the lowlands (about 300 m above sea level) is well-selected varieties that the European grape varieties like Probolinggo Probolinggo blue or white. As for the plateau (300-700 m asl) were planted grape varieties such as South America isabella1 Carmant, Brilliant, or beacons.The following step is to prepare the necessary means of planting. Pot used can be made of cement, clay, pieces of drums, cans or plastic pots. When the square-shaped pot size 60cm x 60cm ideally X75 cm. for pot-shaped circle, diameter 60cm and height 75 cm. bottom of the pot should be drainage holes.Media used a mixture of soil, sand and manure in the ratio 1: 1: 2. Before the media is loaded into the pot, the pot bottom placed first broken bricks or pebbles of the river as high as 30 cm. Furthermore, the media is inserted to a height of 5 cm below the mouth of the pot. Along the planting, if necessary add as much as 10 g NPK fertilizer per pot. Pots with the medium should be aerated for a week before planting.For more practical when used seedlings ready for planting seeds purchased from pejual seedlings. But if you have a parent plant, seeds can be made from cuttings or grafts. Grape cuttings were selected from primary branches 1-2 years old. It was brown and has a roundness roundness branch buds on their skin. Branch cut about 2 cm

SRI paddy cropping pattern

SRI paddy cropping pattern model is a way of rice farming back to nature. That means farmers no longer use the chemical fertilizer, but use straw, waste geraji, husks, banana trees, manure-treated soil for fertilizer. Then, sowing seeds that are no longer 20 days, but a seven-day nursery places as simple as utilizing a small baskets.

If you previously needed 30 kg seed / ha, now SRI pattern quite 7 kg / ha. After that, planted in fields with a single seed (one seed) of seed at the age of seven days with a distance of 30 cm x 30 cm. Not much is given water, and weeding done four times, giving up six times the natural fertilizer, integrated pest management, and harvest at age 100 days or sooner 15 days with a regular pattern. According to the Head of Department of Agriculture Ciamis, Ir. Lukman, currently has 73 ha of land use patterns of SRI. On average each harvest reached 10 tonnes / ha with a regular pattern of the average yield only 4.5 tons / ha. It's a fairly significant increase in spike patterns of SRI rice production with up to 100%. This means that there are great opportunities in increasing agricultural production of rice and also environmentally friendly.

TILLAGE OF THE SOIL

A good many years ago a man by the name of Jethro Tull lived in England. He was a farmer and a most successful man in every way. He first taught the English people and the world the value of thorough tillage of the soil. Before and during his time farmers did not till the soil very intelligently. They simply prepared the seed-bed in a careless manner, as a great many farmers do to-day, and when the crops were gathered the yields were not large.

Rambutan

Jethro Tull centered attention on the important fact that careful and thorough tillage increases the available plant food in the soil. He did not know why his crops were better when the ground was frequently and thoroughly tilled, but he knew that such tillage did increase his yield. He explained the fact by saying, "Tillage is manure." We have since learned the reason for the truth that Tull taught, and, while his explanation was incorrect, the practice that he was following was excellent. The stirring of the soil enables the air to circulate through it freely, and permits a breaking down of the compounds that contain the elements necessary to plant growth.

Planting cassava with maximum results

many farmers who do not understand how to plant cassava with maximum results, so I give a tip as follows:
1. tillage
Land should be dug with soil systems is bulked like chili but want to plant in the soil mound fill with dry litter or grass or rice straw that has been harvested or dried herbs all leaves anything, that leaf litter is important, that is later in time can be used as cheap fertilizer
Create a column of water flow between the mound so that water does not soak the soil mound.
2. Planting seeds, all tree species of cassava with a distance 0.75 cm, so there is a distance not too tightly, and do the opposite of the old stem seedlings under

ORIGIN OF THE SOIL

The word soil occurs many times in this little book. In agriculture this word is used to describe the thin layer of surface earth that, like some great blanket, is tucked around the wrinkled and age-beaten form of our globe. The harder and colder earth under this surface layer is called the subsoil. It should be noted, however, that in waterless and sun-dried regions there seems little difference between the soil and the subsoil.
Plants, insects, birds, beasts, men,—all alike are fed on what grows in this thin layer of soil. If some wild flood in sudden wrath could sweep into the ocean this earth-wrapping soil, food would soon become as scarce as it was in Samaria when mothers ate their sons. The face of the earth as we now see it, daintily robed in grass, or uplifting waving acres of corn, or even naked, water-scarred, and disfigured by man's neglect, is very different from what it was in its earliest days. How was it then? How was the soil formed?
Learned men think that at first the surface of the earth was solid rock. How was this rock changed into workable soil? Occasionally a curious boy picks up a rotten stone, squeezes it, and finds his hands filled with dirt, or soil. Now, just as the boy crumbled with his fingers this single stone, the great forces of nature with boundless patience crumbled, or, as it is called, disintegrated, the early rock mass. The simple but giant-strong agents that beat the rocks into powder with a clublike force a millionfold more powerful than the club force of Hercules were chiefly (1) heat and cold; (2) water, frost, and ice; (3) a very low form of vegetable life; and (4) tiny animals—if such minute bodies can be called animals. In some cases these forces acted singly; in others, all acted together to rend and crumble the unbroken stretch of rock. Let us glance at some of the methods used by these skilled soil-makers.
Heat and cold are working partners. You already know that most hot bodies shrink, or contract, on cooling. The early rocks were hot. As the outside shell of rock cooled from exposure to air and moisture it contracted. This shrinkage of the rigid rim of course broke many of the rocks, and here and there left cracks, or fissures. In these fissures water collected and froze. As freezing water expands with irresistible power, the expansion still further broke the rocks to pieces. The smaller pieces again, in the same way, were acted on by frost and ice and again crumbled. This process is still a means of soil-formation.
Running water was another giant soil-former. If you would understand its action, observe some usually sparkling stream just after a washing rain. The clear waters are discolored by mud washed in from the surrounding hills. As though disliking their muddy burden, the waters strive to throw it off. Here, as low banks offer chance, they run out into shallows and drop some of it. Here, as they pass a quiet pool, they deposit more. At last they reach the still water at the mouth of the stream, and there they leave behind the last of their[Pg 3] mud load, and often form of it little three-sided islands called deltas. In the same way mighty rivers like the Amazon, the Mississippi, and the Hudson, when they are swollen by rain, bear great quantities of soil in their sweep to the seas. Some of the soil they scatter over the lowlands as they whirl seaward; the rest they deposit in deltas at their mouths. It is estimated that the Mississippi carries to the ocean each year enough soil to cover a square mile of surface to a depth of two hundred and sixty-eight feet.

Tidung Island Scenery

Salak Pondoh Cultivation

Salak Pondoh Cultivation

Salak Pondoh sequence Raising Activities

Sequence of farming activities Pondoh Salak is as follows:

    Salak garden land management s / d ready for planting so the plant at once by making holes;
    Planting shade trees;
    Preparation of salak seedlings;
    Planting seeds of replanting plants die;
    Fertilization;
    Pembubunan;
    Weeding;
    Eradication of pests as disease;
    Transplanting of seedlings;
    Trimming;
    Harvest the fruit and result handling until ready to sell.

Nurseries 

Blurred Landscape

In an effort salak seedlings need to be considered genetic traits. Naturally it can be seen a flowering plant that is always barking males. Plants of this type are not able to produce fruit.

To get salak seedlings that can be done to produce generative (seeds bark) and vegetative (seedling shoots). Breed barked by seeds seems far easier and cheaper, especially for large amounts. In addition, the plant will obtain a stronger condition. The weakness of the system is generative breeding, berbuahnya longer time, do not always have the properties of the same genetic and superior to the parent tree and can not be ascertained whether the seedlings will be female plants or plants became male.

Seeds can be obtained by separating the vegetative tillers, both directly and artificially separating tillers (graft). These seeds have several advantages, among others, the results obtained in nature plants must be the same as the parent tree, it can be ascertained in advance gender of plants referred to (male / female), fast flowering and fruiting, and the results are more uniform (the same relative to the parent tree). Salak plants that will serve as the parent vegetative propagation, should have the following criteria:

Chemistry of food and nutritions Part 3

The difference between the proportions digested of the other food

constituents was much less. Although there is here a theoretical advantage

in favour of animal food, there are other considerations of far more

importance than a little undigestible waste. The main question is one of

health. In some dietary experiments of a girl aged 7, living upon a fruit

diet, of whom we have given some particulars elsewhere, Professor Jaffa

gives the following particulars. During the ten days trial the percentages

absorbed were proteids 82.5, fat 86.9, nitrogen free extract 96, crude

fibre 80, ash 5.7, heat of combustion in calories 86.7. He says,

"generally speaking, the food was quite thoroughly assimilated, the

coefficients of digestibility being about the same as are found in an

ordinary mixed diet. It is interesting to note that 80 per cent. of the

crude fibre appeared to be digested. The results of a number of foreign

experiments on the digestibility of crude fibre by man are from 30 to 91.4

per cent., the former value being from mixed wheat and rye, and the latter

in a diet made of rice, vegetables and meat."

TABLE OF ANALYSIS OF FOOD

Key:

P = Proteins.

Cb = Carbohydrates.

C = Cellulose.

R = Refuse.

W = Water.

Ca = Calories.

                                                                      Nt'nt

                     P.      Fat.   Cb.   Ash.  C     R    W     Ca   Ratio

Wholemeal, G.       14.9     1.6   66.2   1.7  1.6   ...  14.0  1577   4.68

Fine Flour, G.       9.3     0.8   76.5   0.7  0.7   ...  12.0  1629   8.4

Medium Flour, G.    12.1     0.9   72.2   0.9  0.9   ...  13.0  1606   6.13

Bread,

  Wholemeal, G.     12.2     1.2   43.5   1.3  1.8   ...  40.0  1086   3.8

Bread, White, G.     7.5     0.8   53.8   0.9  ...   ...  37.0  1174   7.4

Macaroni, U.        13.4     0.9   74.1   1.3  ...   ...  10.3  1665   5.67

Oatmeal, D.         14.8     9.6   63.3   2.2  1.4   ...   8.7  1858   5.72

Maize,

  American, S.      10.0     4.25  71.75  1.5  1.75  ...  10.75 1700   8.12

Rice, husked, U.     8.0     0.3   79.0   0.4  ...   ...  12.3  1630  10.0

Rye Flour, U.        6.8     0.9   78.3   0.7  0.4   ...  12.9  1620  11.8

Barley,

  Pearl, C.          6.2     1.3   76.0   1.1  0.8   ...  14.6  1584  12.7

Buckwheat

  Flour, U.          6.4     1.2   77.9   0.9  ...   ...  13.6  1619  12.6

Soy Bean, C.        35.3    18.9   26.0   4.6  4.2   ...  11.0  1938   1.93

Pea-nut, C.         24.5    50.0   11.7   1.8  4.5   ...   7.5  2783   5.2

Lentils, U.         25.7     1.0   59.2   5.7  ...   ...   8.4  1621   2.4

Peas, dried, U.     24.6     1.0   62.0   2.9  4.5   ...   9.5  1655   2.6

Peas,

  green, E.U.        7.0     0.5   15.2   1.0  1.7   ...  74.6   465   2.3

Haricots, C.        23.0     2.3   52.3   2.9  5.5   ...  14.0  1463   2.5

Walnuts,

  fresh k., C.      12.5    31.6    8.9   1.7  0.8   ...  44.5  1563   6.33

Walnut kernels      21.4    54.1   15.2   2.9  1.4   ...   5.0  2964   6.33

Filberts,

  fresh ker., C.     8.4    28.5   11.1   1.5  2.5   ...  48.0  1506   8.9

Tomatoes, U.         1.2     0.2    3.5   0.6  0.5   ...  94.0   105   3.3

Grapes, U.           1.0     1.2   10.1   0.4  4.3   25   58.0   335  12.8

Apples, E.U.         0.4     0.5   13.0   0.3  1.2  (25)  84.6   290  35.3

Raisins, E U.        2.6     3.3   76.1   3.4  ...  (10)  14.6  1605  32.0

Dates, E.U.          2.1     2.8   78.4   1.3  ...  (10)  15.4  1615  40.0

Banana, C.D.         1.71    ...   20.13  0.71 1.74  ...  75.7   406  11.7

Banana Flour, P.     3.13    1.73  82.4   5.93 1.21  ...   5.6  1664  27.5

Potatoes, K.         1.9     0.2   20.7   1.0  0.7   ...  75.7   429  11.0

Turnips, E.          1.3     0.2    6.8   0.8  1.3  (30)  89.6   159   5.57

Onions, E.U.         1.6     0.3    9.1   0.6  0.8  (10)  87.6   225   6.1

Cabbage, E U.        1.6     0.3    4.5   1.0  1.1  (15)  91.5   123   3.23

Asparagus, U.        1.5     0.1    2.3   1.2  0.5   ...  94.4    85   1.7

Celery, E.U.         1.1     0.1    3.3   1.0  ...  (20)  94.5    85   3.2

Mushrooms, U.        3.5     0.4    6.8   1.2  ...   ...  88.1   210   2.2

Tapioca, U.          0.4     0.1   88.0   0.1  ...   ...  11.4  1650 220

Sugar                ...     ...  100     ...  ...   ...   ...  1860   ...

Oil                  ...   100      ...   ...  ...   ...   ...  4220   ...

Milk                 3.6     3.7    4.6   0.73 ...   ...  87.4   309   3.56

Butter, fresh        0.8    83.5    1.5   0.2  ...   ...  14.0  3566 234

Cheese, U.          25.9    33.7    2.4   3.8  ...   ...  34.2  1950   3.0

Hen's Eggs, U.      11.9     9.3    ...   0.9  ...  11.2  65.5   635   1.74

Beef, loin, U.      16.4    16.9    ...   0.9  ...  13.3  52.9  1020   2.3

Beef, loin, edible

  p., U.            19.0    19.1    ...   1.0  ...   ...  61.3  1155   2.3

Mutton,

  shoulder, U.      13.7    17.1    ...   0.7  ...  22.1  46.8   975   2.77

Pork, Ham, U.       14.3    29.7    ...   0.8  ...  10.3  45.1  1520   4.6

Bacon, smoked, U.    9.5    59.4    ...   4.5  ...   8.7  18.4  2685  13.9

Fowl, U.            13.7    12.3    ...   0.7  ...  25.9  47.1   775   2.0

Goose, U.           13.4    29.8    ...   0.7  ...  17.6  38.5  1505   4.9

Cod, dressed, U.    11.1     0.2    ...   0.8  ...  29.9  58.5   215   0.04

Mackerel, whole, U. 10.2     4.2    ...   0.7  ...  44.7  40.4   365   9.13

Oysters, L.          8.75    0.92   8.09  2.4  ...   ...  79.8   352   1.16

NOTES ON THE TABLE OF ANALYSIS.--Under calories are shown kilo-calories

per pound of food. In the analysis marked U the crude fibre or cellulose

is included with the carbo-hydrate, the figures being those given in

Atwater's table. He has found that from 30 to 91 per cent. of the crude

fibre was digested, according to the kind of food. The term fibre or

cellulose in analytical tables is not a very definite one. It depends upon

the details of the method of analysis. In the analyses other than U, the

cellulose is excluded in calculating the calories. Nutrient ratio is the

proportion of the sum of the carbo-hydrate and fat, compared with the

proteid as 1. The fat has first been multiplied by 2.225 to bring it to

the same nutrient value as the carbo-hydrate.