The difference between the proportions digested of the other food
constituents was much less. Although there is here a theoretical advantage
in favour of animal food, there are other considerations of far more
importance than a little undigestible waste. The main question is one of
health. In some dietary experiments of a girl aged 7, living upon a fruit
diet, of whom we have given some particulars elsewhere, Professor Jaffa
gives the following particulars. During the ten days trial the percentages
absorbed were proteids 82.5, fat 86.9, nitrogen free extract 96, crude
fibre 80, ash 5.7, heat of combustion in calories 86.7. He says,
"generally speaking, the food was quite thoroughly assimilated, the
coefficients of digestibility being about the same as are found in an
ordinary mixed diet. It is interesting to note that 80 per cent. of the
crude fibre appeared to be digested. The results of a number of foreign
experiments on the digestibility of crude fibre by man are from 30 to 91.4
per cent., the former value being from mixed wheat and rye, and the latter
in a diet made of rice, vegetables and meat."
TABLE OF ANALYSIS OF FOOD
Key:
P = Proteins.
Cb = Carbohydrates.
C = Cellulose.
R = Refuse.
W = Water.
Ca = Calories.
Nt'nt
P. Fat. Cb. Ash. C R W Ca Ratio
Wholemeal, G. 14.9 1.6 66.2 1.7 1.6 ... 14.0 1577 4.68
Fine Flour, G. 9.3 0.8 76.5 0.7 0.7 ... 12.0 1629 8.4
Medium Flour, G. 12.1 0.9 72.2 0.9 0.9 ... 13.0 1606 6.13
Bread,
Wholemeal, G. 12.2 1.2 43.5 1.3 1.8 ... 40.0 1086 3.8
Bread, White, G. 7.5 0.8 53.8 0.9 ... ... 37.0 1174 7.4
Macaroni, U. 13.4 0.9 74.1 1.3 ... ... 10.3 1665 5.67
Oatmeal, D. 14.8 9.6 63.3 2.2 1.4 ... 8.7 1858 5.72
Maize,
American, S. 10.0 4.25 71.75 1.5 1.75 ... 10.75 1700 8.12
Rice, husked, U. 8.0 0.3 79.0 0.4 ... ... 12.3 1630 10.0
Rye Flour, U. 6.8 0.9 78.3 0.7 0.4 ... 12.9 1620 11.8
Barley,
Pearl, C. 6.2 1.3 76.0 1.1 0.8 ... 14.6 1584 12.7
Buckwheat
Flour, U. 6.4 1.2 77.9 0.9 ... ... 13.6 1619 12.6
Soy Bean, C. 35.3 18.9 26.0 4.6 4.2 ... 11.0 1938 1.93
Pea-nut, C. 24.5 50.0 11.7 1.8 4.5 ... 7.5 2783 5.2
Lentils, U. 25.7 1.0 59.2 5.7 ... ... 8.4 1621 2.4
Peas, dried, U. 24.6 1.0 62.0 2.9 4.5 ... 9.5 1655 2.6
Peas,
green, E.U. 7.0 0.5 15.2 1.0 1.7 ... 74.6 465 2.3
Haricots, C. 23.0 2.3 52.3 2.9 5.5 ... 14.0 1463 2.5
Walnuts,
fresh k., C. 12.5 31.6 8.9 1.7 0.8 ... 44.5 1563 6.33
Walnut kernels 21.4 54.1 15.2 2.9 1.4 ... 5.0 2964 6.33
Filberts,
fresh ker., C. 8.4 28.5 11.1 1.5 2.5 ... 48.0 1506 8.9
Tomatoes, U. 1.2 0.2 3.5 0.6 0.5 ... 94.0 105 3.3
Grapes, U. 1.0 1.2 10.1 0.4 4.3 25 58.0 335 12.8
Apples, E.U. 0.4 0.5 13.0 0.3 1.2 (25) 84.6 290 35.3
Raisins, E U. 2.6 3.3 76.1 3.4 ... (10) 14.6 1605 32.0
Dates, E.U. 2.1 2.8 78.4 1.3 ... (10) 15.4 1615 40.0
Banana, C.D. 1.71 ... 20.13 0.71 1.74 ... 75.7 406 11.7
Banana Flour, P. 3.13 1.73 82.4 5.93 1.21 ... 5.6 1664 27.5
Potatoes, K. 1.9 0.2 20.7 1.0 0.7 ... 75.7 429 11.0
Turnips, E. 1.3 0.2 6.8 0.8 1.3 (30) 89.6 159 5.57
Onions, E.U. 1.6 0.3 9.1 0.6 0.8 (10) 87.6 225 6.1
Cabbage, E U. 1.6 0.3 4.5 1.0 1.1 (15) 91.5 123 3.23
Asparagus, U. 1.5 0.1 2.3 1.2 0.5 ... 94.4 85 1.7
Celery, E.U. 1.1 0.1 3.3 1.0 ... (20) 94.5 85 3.2
Mushrooms, U. 3.5 0.4 6.8 1.2 ... ... 88.1 210 2.2
Tapioca, U. 0.4 0.1 88.0 0.1 ... ... 11.4 1650 220
Sugar ... ... 100 ... ... ... ... 1860 ...
Oil ... 100 ... ... ... ... ... 4220 ...
Milk 3.6 3.7 4.6 0.73 ... ... 87.4 309 3.56
Butter, fresh 0.8 83.5 1.5 0.2 ... ... 14.0 3566 234
Cheese, U. 25.9 33.7 2.4 3.8 ... ... 34.2 1950 3.0
Hen's Eggs, U. 11.9 9.3 ... 0.9 ... 11.2 65.5 635 1.74
Beef, loin, U. 16.4 16.9 ... 0.9 ... 13.3 52.9 1020 2.3
Beef, loin, edible
p., U. 19.0 19.1 ... 1.0 ... ... 61.3 1155 2.3
Mutton,
shoulder, U. 13.7 17.1 ... 0.7 ... 22.1 46.8 975 2.77
Pork, Ham, U. 14.3 29.7 ... 0.8 ... 10.3 45.1 1520 4.6
Bacon, smoked, U. 9.5 59.4 ... 4.5 ... 8.7 18.4 2685 13.9
Fowl, U. 13.7 12.3 ... 0.7 ... 25.9 47.1 775 2.0
Goose, U. 13.4 29.8 ... 0.7 ... 17.6 38.5 1505 4.9
Cod, dressed, U. 11.1 0.2 ... 0.8 ... 29.9 58.5 215 0.04
Mackerel, whole, U. 10.2 4.2 ... 0.7 ... 44.7 40.4 365 9.13
Oysters, L. 8.75 0.92 8.09 2.4 ... ... 79.8 352 1.16
NOTES ON THE TABLE OF ANALYSIS.--Under calories are shown kilo-calories
per pound of food. In the analysis marked U the crude fibre or cellulose
is included with the carbo-hydrate, the figures being those given in
Atwater's table. He has found that from 30 to 91 per cent. of the crude
fibre was digested, according to the kind of food. The term fibre or
cellulose in analytical tables is not a very definite one. It depends upon
the details of the method of analysis. In the analyses other than U, the
cellulose is excluded in calculating the calories. Nutrient ratio is the
proportion of the sum of the carbo-hydrate and fat, compared with the
proteid as 1. The fat has first been multiplied by 2.225 to bring it to
the same nutrient value as the carbo-hydrate.
U indicates that the analyses are taken from the United States Department
of Agriculture Experimental Station, Bulletin 28, the tests being chiefly
made by Dr. W.O. Atwater, or under his direction. They are average
analyses of several samples. The refuse consists of such parts as are
rejected in preparing the food; the outer leaves, skin, stalk, seeds, &c.,
of vegetables; the shell of eggs; the bone, &c., of meat. E, indicates
that the edible portion only of the food has been analysed, and under
refuse, in brackets, is shown the quantity rejected before the analysis
was made.
There is considerable variation in the same kind of food, according to the
variety of seed and conditions of growth &c., especially is this the case
with wheat and flour; whenever it has been possible the average of the
analyses of many samples have been given. The method of analysis has not
always been uniform, frequently the cellulose is included with the
carbo-hydrates, and the proteid sometimes includes a very appreciable
quantity of non-proteid nitrogenous matter. This is the case in the
analysis of the mushrooms. G.--Analyses are by John Goodfellow; it will be
noticed that the wheatmeal bread is not made from the same flour as the
whole-meal. D.--B. Dyer, average of 19 fine and coarse oatmeals. S, from
U.S. Cons. Reports, 1899. C.--A.H. Church. The walnut kernels are in the
dried condition as purchased; originally of the same composition as shewn
in the fresh kernels. C.D.--Cavendish or Figi variety of banana, analysis
by D.W.M. Doherty, N.S. Wales. P.--A. Petermann, U.S. Cons. Banana flour,
_musca paradisiaca_ variety. This is widely used in Central America. The
flour is from the unripe fruit, and contains starch 45.7 per cent.; on
ripening the starch is converted into sugar. K.--Konig, mean of 90
analysis. Milk:--Average of many thousand analyses of the pure.
Butter.--Made without salt. L, from the "Lancet," 1903, I, p. 72. Oysters
at 2/6 per dozen. The 8.09 per cent. includes 0.91 glycogen (animal
starch). The shell was of course excluded, also the liquid in the shell.
Apples.--The refuse includes seeds, skin, &c., and such edible portion as
is wasted in cutting them away; the analysis was made on the rest.
Cookery.--Flesh is easier to digest raw. A few, on the advice of their
doctors, eat minced raw flesh, raw beef juice and even fresh warm blood.
Such practice is abhorrent to every person of refinement. Cooking lessens
the offensive appearance and qualities of flesh and changes the flavour;
thorough cooking also destroys any parasites that may be present. Raw
flesh is more stimulating to the animal passions, and excites ferocity in
both man and animals. If the old argument was valid, that as flesh is much
nearer in composition and quality to our own flesh and tissues, it is
therefore our best food, we do wrong in coagulating the albuminoids,
hardening the muscle substance and scorching it by cooking.
Fruits when ripe and in good condition are best eaten raw; cooking spoils
the flavour. Food requiring mastication and encouraging insalivation is
the best. Food is frequently made too sloppy or liquid, and is eaten too
hot, thus favouring indigestion and decay of the teeth. The cereals and
pulses can only with difficulty be eaten raw. When cooked in water the
starch granules swell and break up, the plant cells are ruptured, the
fibres are separated and the nutritious matter rendered easy of digestion.
The flavour is greatly improved. Cooking increases our range and variety
of food. The civilised races use it to excess and over-season their
dishes, favouring over-eating.
If baking powders are used they should only be of the best makes. They
should be composed of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid, in such
correct proportions that upon the addition of water only sodium tartrate
and carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) should result. Some powders contain an
excess of sodium bicarbonate. Self-raising flours should be avoided. They
are commonly composed of--in addition to sodium bicarbonate--acid calcium
phosphate, calcium superphosphate and calcium sulphate. Common baking
powders often consist of the same ingredients, and sometimes also of
magnesia and alum. These are often made and sold by ignorant men, whose
sole object is to make money. Calcium superphosphate and acid calcium
phosphate very frequently contain arsenic, and as the cheap commercial
qualities are often used there is danger in this direction. A good formula
for baking powder is, tartaric acid 8 ozs., sodium bicarbonate 9 ozs.,
rice flour 10 to 20 ozs. The last is added to baking powders to improve
the keeping quality and to add bulk. The ingredients must be first
carefully dried, the sodium bicarbonate at not too high a temperature or
it decomposes, and then thoroughly mixed; this must be preserved in well
closed and dry bottles. Another formula, which is slow rising and well
adapted for pastry, is sodium bicarbonate 4 ozs., cream of tartar 9 ozs.,
rice flour about 14 ozs. Custard powders consist of starch, colouring and
flavouring. Egg powders are similar to baking powders but contain yellow
colouring. Little objection can be taken to them if they are coloured with
saffron; turmeric would do if it were not that it gives a slightly
unpleasant taste. Artificial colouring matters or coal tar derivatives are
much used, several of these are distinctly poisonous.
Drinks.--It is better not to drink during eating, or insalivation may be
interfered with; a drink is better taken at the end of a meal. The
practice of washing down food with hot tea is bad. The refreshing nature
of a cup of hot tea, coffee, or cocoa is to a very great extent due to the
warmth of the water. The benefit is felt at once, before the alkaloid can
enter the blood stream and stimulate the nerve centres. Hot water, not too
hot to cause congestion of the mucous membrane, is one of the best drinks.
When the purity of the water supply is doubtful, there is advantage in
first bringing it to the boil, as pathogenic bacteria are destroyed. Some
find it beneficial to drink a cup of hot water the first thing in the
morning; this cleanses the stomach from any accumulation of mucus.
If fruit, succulent vegetables, or cooked food, containing much water be
freely used, and there be little perspiration, it is possible to do
without drinking; but there is danger of taking insufficient water to
hold freely in solution the waste products excreted by the body.
Aerated drinks, except a very few of the best, and non-alcoholic beers and
wines, are generally unwholesome, from their containing preservatives,
foaming powders, artificial flavourings, &c.
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